Assessment of Psychological Processes in Students with LD

Assessment of Psychological Processes in Students with LD

Milton J. Dehn, Ed.D., NCSP

These handouts are copyrighted (2013) by Milton J. Dehn, Schoolhouse Educational Services, LLC, and Wiley Publishing. All rights reserved. No photocopying or dissemination of these materials is allowed without written permission.

Psychological Processes Significantly Related With Types of Academic Learning

Basic Reading Skills / Reading Fluency / Reading
Comprehension / Mathematics
Calculation / Mathematics
Reasoning / Written Language
Attention
Auditory Processing / Auditory Processing / Auditory Processing
Executive
Functions / Executive
Functions
Fine Motor
Fluid Reasoning / Fluid Reasoning / Fluid Reasoning / Fluid Reasoning
Long-Term Recall / Long-Term Recall / Long-Term Recall / Long-Term Recall / Long-Term Recall / Long-Term Recall
Oral Lang. / Oral Language / Oral Language / Oral Language
Phonological Processing / Phonological Processing / Phonological Processing
Processing Speed / Processing Speed / Processing Speed / Processing Speed / Processing Speed
Visual-Spatial Processing
Working Memory / Working Memory / Working Memory / Working Memory / Working Memory

A Theory of Psychological Processing and Learning

The proposed theory of psychological processing and learning is: For each academic skill there is an optimal set of psychological processes that function as aptitudes. For successful learning of a specific academic skill, the combined set of specific aptitudes must attain a sufficient threshold of development.

Principles:

1. These psychological processes have a neurological basis.
2. The acquisition and performance of each specific academic skill relies on a different combination (set) of aptitudes.
3. Psychological processes related to learning function in an integrated fashion, with multiple, parallel processes occurring simultaneously.
4. Memory processes, either working memory, long-term memory, or both are core psychological processes that are fundamental for all types of academic learning.
5. The aptitudes for a particular academic skill strongly influence the level of skill development.
6. The combined set of aptitudes for a specific academic skill has more influence on skill development than any one aptitude in isolation.
7. A combined set of aptitudes that is within the average range enables successful skill acquisition.
8. The more processing aptitudes for a specific academic skill that are poorly developed, the more the severe learning disability.
9. A pattern of strengths and weaknesses does not necessarily “cause” a learning disability or “prove” that a learning disability exists. Nearly everyone has strengths and weaknesses.

Rapid Reference 2.3 Processing Clusters

Memory / Executive / Language / Visual-Motor
Attention
Executive Functions
Fluid Reasoning
Long-Term Recall
Processing Speed
Working Memory / Attention
Executive Functions
Fluid Reasoning
Working Memory / Auditory Processing
Long-Term Recall
Oral Language Processes
Phonological Processing
Working Memory / Fine Motor Processes;
Visual-Spatial
Processing

Rapid Reference 2.4 Developmental Groupings of Processes

Mature Early after Gradual Development / Mature Late after Gradual Development / Mature Early after Rapid Development
Auditory Processing
Fine Motor Processing
Long-Term Recall
Phonological Processing
Visual-Spatial Processing / Attention
Executive Functions
Fluid Reasoning
Oral Language
Working Memory / Processing Speed

Behavioral Difficulties That Are Indicative of Possible Processing Problems

Attention: Difficulty staying on task; short attention span; easily distracted; poor listening skills; difficulty competing tasks; unable to divide attention between two tasks

Auditory Processing: Misunderstands spoken words; difficulty differentiating between different sounds; difficulty understanding instruction when there is background noise

Executive Functions: Difficulty with self-control, difficulty getting started; is not very strategic; difficulty shifting from one task to another; difficulty planning and organizing; does not notice and correct mistakes

Fine Motor Processes: Difficulty cutting with a scissors; difficulty holding a pencil properly; difficulty copying; difficulty drawing a straight line; has poorly formed letters when printing

Fluid Reasoning: Difficulty with logic and inferences; difficulties with matching, sorting, or classifying; difficulty with problem-solving; difficulty comprehending concepts

Long-Term Recall: (see Chapter 6 for more items) Difficulty with all types of remembering; is slow to recall information he or she knows; performs poorly on classroom examinations

Oral Language Processes: All types of difficulties related to expressing ideas orally; speaks only in short-sentences; has poor grammar; has difficulty paraphrasing

Phonological Processing: Difficulty recognizing words that rhyme; difficulty blending, segmenting, and manipulating phonemes; difficulty pronouncing words; difficulty spelling phonetically regular words

Processing Speed: Difficulty completing tests on time; is slow to respond to questions; is slow to make decision; lacks fluency in basic skills

Visual-Spatial Processing: Difficulty recognizing visual patterns; difficulty correctly reproducing letters; difficulties with spatial orientation

Working Memory: (see Chapter 6 for more items) Difficulty with remembering information for just a few seconds; frequently asks for repetition; forgets what he or she was doing; has difficulty multitasking; loses place when counting

Rapid Reference 4.3 Psychological Processes Measured by Composites* and Subtests in Cognitive Scales

Process / WJ III COG & WJ III DS / WPPSI-IV / WISC-IV &
WAIS-IV / SB5 / CAS-II / KABC-II / DAS-II / RIAS
Attention / Pair Cancellation
Auditory Attention deleted / ATTENTION
Auditory Processing / AUDITORY PROCESSING
Sound Patterns-Voice;
Sound Patterns-Music
Executive
Functions / Pair Cancellation;
Planning / PLANNING
Fine Motor / Copying
Fluid Reasoning / FLUID REASONING / FLUID REASONING / Matrix Reasoning;
Picture Concepts; Figure Weights / FLUID REASONING / Matrices / PLANNING ABILITY / Matrices; Picture Similarities;
Sequential & Quantitative Reasoning / Odd Item Out;
What’s Missing
Long-Term Recall / Visual-Auditory Learning Delayed;
Rapid Picture Naming;
Retrieval Fluency;
Memory for Names-Delayed / DELAYED RECALL / Rapid Naming; Recall of Objects Delayed
Phonological Processing / PHONEMIC AWARENESS / Phonological Processing
Processing Speed / PROCESSING SPEED;
Cross Out / PROCESSING SPEED / PROCESSING SPEED;
Cancellation / PROCESSING SPEED:
Visual-Spatial Processing / Spatial Relations;
Visual Closure;
Block Orientation / VISUAL SPATIAL / Block Design;
Picture Completion;
Visual Puzzles / Nonverbal Visual-Spatial Processing / Verbal-Spatial Relations / SIMULTANEOUS PROCESSING / Pattern Construction;
Matching Letter-Like Forms
Working Memory / SHORT-TERM MEMORY;
WORKING MEMORY;
Picture Recognition;
Memory for Sentences / WORKING MEMORY / WORKING MEMORY / WORKING MEMORY / SUCCESSIVE PROCESSING / SEQUENTIAL PROCESSING / WORKING MEMORY;
Recall of Designs;
Recall of Digits Forward;
Recall of Objects-Immediate;
Recognition of Pictures / COMPOSITE MEMORY INDEX

* Items in upper case are the names of composites.

Appendix E.1Psychological Processing Assessment Planner

Student: DOB: Age: Grade:

Date of Referral: Form Completed By: Date:

Academic Deficiency / Processing Weakness
Hypotheses* / Non-Processing Hypotheses / Assessment Method or Test Battery / Composites and Subtests to Administer

*Options: Attention, Auditory Processing, Executive Functions, Fine Motor Processing, Fluid Reasoning, Long-Term Recall, Oral Language Processing, Phonological Processing, Processing Speed, Visual-Spatial Processing, Working Memory

See Chapter 4 for directions and a completed example.

Appendix E.4Processing Analysis Worksheet

Student’s Name:______Date-of-Birth: ______Gender: ____ Age: ____ Grade: ____ Dates of Testing: ______

Psychological Process / Names of Scales / Names of Composites and Subtests / Composite
or Subtest
Scores / Process Score / Confidence Interval
____% / Cross-
Battery
Mean / Discrepancy / Normative
S or W / Intra-
Individual
S or W / Deficit or Asset
Attention
Auditory Processing
Executive
Functions
Fine Motor
Fluid Reasoning
Long-Term Recall
Oral Language
Phonological Processing
Processing Speed
Visual-Spatial Processing
Working Memory

Pairs

Process / Confidence Interval / Process / Confidence Interval / Significant? / Relationship

Directions: (1) Convert all scores to standard scores with a mean of 100 and an SD of 15. (2) For the Process Scores, if a composite is unavailable, compute the mean of the subtest scores and round to the nearest whole number. (3) When confidence intervals are not available from the specific scale’s manual, use a general 95% confidence interval by adding and subtracting 10 points from the Process Score. (4) For the Cross-Battery Mean, compute the mean of scores in the Process Score column. (5) For the Discrepancy value, subtract the Cross-Battery Mean from the Process Score. (6) Indicate whether the Process Score is a normative weakness or strength (90-109 is average). (7) Using a criterion of 12 points, determine intra-individual strengths and weaknesses. (8) Determine deficits and assets. A deficit is both a normative and intra-individual weakness; an asset is both a normative and intra-individual strength. (9) Compare logical pairs of processes. When the Confidence Intervals do not overlap, there is a significant difference. See Chapter 9 for additional instructions and examples.

Rapid Reference 9.2 Processing Analysis Worksheet---Completed Example

Student’s Name:______Date-of-Birth: ______Gender: MaleAge: 12 Grade: 5 Dates of Testing: ______

Psychological Process / Scale / Composite or Subtest / Composite
or Subtest
Score / Process Score / Confidence Interval
__95__% / Cross-
Battery
Mean / Discrepancy / Normative
S or W / Intra-
Individual
S or W / Deficit or Asset
Attention / CPPS / Attention / 50 (100) / 100 / 94-106 / 95 / +5
Auditory Processing / WJ III COG / AUDITORY PROCESSING / 102 / 102 / 92-112 / 95 / +7
Executive
Functions / BRIEF / METACOG.
INDEX / 64 (79) / 79 / 73-85 / 95 / -16
Fine Motor / CPPS / Fine Motor / 53 (95) / 95 / 88-103 / 95 / 0
Fluid Reasoning / WISC-IV / Matrix Reasoning
Picture Concepts / 9 (95)
11 (105) / 100 / 90-110 / 95 / +5
Long-Term Recall / WJ III COG / Rapid Pic. Naming
Retrieval Fluency / 75
90 / 83 / 73-93 / 95 / -12
Oral Language / CPPS / Oral Language / 64 (79) / 79 / 70-88 / 95 / -16
Phonological Processing / WJ III COG / PHONEMIC AWARENESS / 108 / 108 / 98-118 / 95 / +13
Processing Speed / WISC-IV / PROCESSING SPEED / 96 / 96 / 86-106 / 95 / +1
Visual-Spatial Processing / WISC-IV / Block Design
Pic. Completion / 13 (115)
11 (105) / 110 / 100-120 / 95 / +15
Working Memory / WISC-IV / WORKING MEMORY / 89 / 89 / 81-97 / 95 / -6

Pairs

Process / Confidence Interval / Process / Confidence Interval / Significant? / Relationship
Working Memory / 81-97 / Executive Functions / 73-85 / No
Working Memory / 81-97 / Oral Language / 70-88 / No
Attention / 94-106 / Executive Functions / 73-85 / Yes / Attention > Executive Functions
Processing Speed / 86-106 / Fine Motor / 88-103 / No

SLD Identification Using a Pattern of Strengths and Weaknesses

For psychological processing assessment data to support the diagnosis of a specific learning disability, all of the following should occur:

1. At least one psychological process is identified as a deficit. (A deficit is defined as a process score that is both below average and an intra-individual weakness.)
2. The score discrepancies indicative of an intra-individual weakness should be consistent with score discrepancies typically required as evidence of statistical significance.
3. The subtest scores of the measured psychological process must be unitary in order to consider the process a deficit.
4. At least one of the psychological processes evaluated has a score within the average range.
5. Relative to deficits, processing scores in the average range should be considered “strengths”, even when they are not significant intra-individual strengths.
6. The processing deficit must have a significant research-based relation with the deficient academic skill being considered for SLD.
7. There should be consistency between the process score(s) and the related academic skill score.

Annotated Bibliography

Carter, R., Aldridge, S., Page, M., & Parker, S. (2009). The human brain book. New York: Dorling Kindersley (DK).

This book incorporates recent findings from neuroscience with clear illustrations and images that help the reader understand the detailed neuroanatomy of all types of brain functions. It delves into all aspects of behavior-related brain functions, including emotions, communication, social functioning, memory, and thinking, as well as reviewing brain development, diseases, and disorders.

Dehn, M. J. (2008). Working memory and academic learning: Assessment and intervention. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

This work begins with an in-depth review of the theoretical foundations and research base for the working memory construct. It then examines the influence of working memory on each type of academic learning. The focus of the text is on procedures for the comprehensive assessment of working memory, following a selective, cross-battery approach. It concludes with a review of evidence-based interventions.

Dehn, M. J. (2010). Long-term memory problems in children and adolescents: Assessment, intervention, and effective instruction. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

This book examines long-term memory functions in children from a neuroscience and neuropsychological perspective. After reviewing risk factors and detailing memory processes such as consolidation, this text outlines procedures for diagnostic testing of long-term memory functions. It concludes with evidence-based recommendations for enhancing long-term memory in the classroom and with reviews of evidence-based interventions for individuals and small groups.

Feifer, S. G., & Della Toffalo, D. A. (2007). Integrating RTI with cognitive neuropsychology: A scientific approach to reading. Middletown, MD: School Neuropsych Press.

This text examines the underlying causes of reading disorders from a brain-behavioral perspective within an RTI service delivery model. It discusses four main types of reading disorders and reviews 20 evidence-based intervention programs.

Flanagan, D. P., & Alfonso, V. C. (2011). Essentials of specific learning disability identification. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

This book examines different approaches to specific learning disability identification. What the approaches have in common is an emphasis on identifying cognitive strengths and weaknesses that account for specific learning impairments. It also includes a review of the research linking specific types of learning with specific neuropsychological processes.

Flanagan, D. P., Ortiz, S. O., & Alfonso, V. C. (2013). Essentials of cross-battery assessment (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

This volume provides a comprehensive set of guidelines and procedures for conducting a cross-battery assessment based on the cognitive abilities identified in Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory. It includes discussions of how to integrate test results from different batteries in a psychometrically defensible manner, how to interpret results based on the research on relations between achievement and cognitive abilities, and how to assess culturally and linguistically diverse individuals. A CD is included that contains software that assists with data analysis and identification of individuals with specific learning disabilities.

Hale, J. B., & Fiorello, C. A. (2004). School neuropsychology: A practitioner’s handbook. New York: Guilford Press.

This text was one of the first to emphasize the brain-basis of learning disorders, while connecting neuropsychology with school-based assessment and interventions. After an in-depth explanation of brain anatomy and how dysfunctions are manifested in school, this text proceeds with recommendations for a hypothesis-testing approach to assessment.

McCloskey, G., Perkins, L. A., & Van Divner, B. (2009). Assessment and intervention for executive function difficulties. New York: Taylor and Francis.

This work translates the theory and research of executive functions into applied practice. It takes a comprehensive model of executive functions and illustrates how these functions impact learning and behavior in educational settings. This work provides assessment guidelines, with an emphasis on informal, diagnostic procedures. It also recommends procedures for developing and implementing interventions for specific types of executive dysfunctions.

McGrew, K. S., & Wendling, B. J. (2010). Cattell-Horn-Carroll cognitive-achievement relations: What we have learned from the past 20 years of research. Psychology in the Schools, 47, 651-675. doi: 10.1002/pits.20497

This article reviews research on the relations between CHC cognitive abilities and specific types of academic skills. It identifies the strongest predictors of specific academic skills and distinguishes between achievement relations with “broad” abilities and relations with “narrow” abilities. One recommendation is that more emphasis should be placed on narrow abilities, as some of these have stronger relations than broad abilities do.

Miller, D. C. (2013). Essentials of school neuropsychological assessment (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

This resource brings neuropsychology practices into the classroom through an integrated model of school neuropsychological assessment. This updated edition integrates neuropsychological principles with Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory. It then provides detailed assessment advice for several neuropsychological functions and processes. It also provides a review of the neurological foundations for each neuropsychological function and process discussed.

Wendling, B., & Mather, N. (2009). Essentials of evidence-based academic interventions. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

This book describes evidence-based, instructional techniques that support and enhance academic learning and performance. It begins with the general principles of effective instruction and a discussion of how cognitive abilities relate to academic interventions. The instructional approaches and interventions address phonological awareness, reading, phonics and sight word instruction, reading fluency, vocabulary, reading comprehension, spelling, written expression, basic math skills, and math problem solving.