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AP Bio Animal Structure and Function – Ch. 40
Anatomy is the study of the ______ of an organism.
Physiology is the study of the ____________of an organism.
Body form
Animal bodies are ___________ in their shape and size by physical constraints such as
the surface to volume ratio needed for _________and all cells need to have access
to a ________environment so the cell membrane can function. The impact of
__________ such as gravity, pressure under water and hydrodynamics must also be dealt
with. Thicker ______and stronger ______are needed as body dimensions increase.
Exchange with the environment
The amount of membrane ________is important as organisms
exchange materials with their environment. The ________ for gases
such as O2 and CO2, nutrients and wastes are all ________ to the
membrane surface area. The amounts that need to be transported also ________ as body size increases.
A unicellular organism must have enough ______ to carry
out all of its necessary exchanges with its environment for its amount of ______.
A multicellular organism’s cells must have access to a suitable ______ environment
either inside or outside the organism’s body. An organism such as hydra with only ____ cell
layersand living in water can ______ exchange between its cells and its
environment. A large multicellular organism use extensively ________or
________surfaces for exchange such as long intestines or lungs with many
small sacs. In addition, the cells of multicellular organisms are each surrounded
by________. This fluid exchanges nutrients and
wastes with the ________and the cells.
Tissues
Tissues are groups of cells that look ________that work together to perform a
certain ________. There are 4 major types: ________,
______, ______and ______.
1. Epithelial tissue occurs in ________of tightly packed cells and covers the
________of the body and lines internal ________and cavities. They are
often held together by ________. Their function is to
____________ the body from mechanical injury, invasion by ______
and ________loss.
One surface of the epithelium is exposed to fluid or air, the other is attached to the
________.
Epithelial tissues are classified by the ________of cell layers:
________has 1 cell layer, ______has more than 1 layer.
Also by the ________of the cells: ____________(cube),
________(columns like bricks) and ________(flat)
Some epithelial tissues are ________and secrete substances such as the
______ membranes that line our mouth and respiratory tract. Some also
have ________which beat to move materials along the surface of the cells.
2. Connective tissue ___________ and supports other tissues. It is made of a few
scattered cells in an extracellular (outside the cell) ______. The matrix is
usually a web of ____________in a liquid, jellylike or solid foundation. These fibers are
made of _________and there are 3 kinds: collangenous,elastic and reticular fibers.
A. Collagenous fibers are made of ________, the most abundant protein in
animals. It is not ___________.
B. Elastic fibers are made of ________and are stretchy.
C. Reticular fibers are thin and ________and make a tightly woven fabric of fibers.
The major types of connective tissues in vertebrates:
a. ________connective tissue is made of all 3 kinds of fibers and it attaches
epithelial tissue to the underlying tissues and is used as a ___________material
around organs. Scattered inside it are ________(amoeboid cells that
move and engulf invaders and dead cells) and ________which produce the proteins that make up the fibers. Loose connective tissue is the most common kind.
b. ______tissue is for storing ______. The fat droplet inside the cell can swell or shrink.
c. ______connective tissue is thick, dense fibers that make up
________(hold muscle to bone) and ________(hold bone to bone).
d. ______covers the ends of our bones and makes up our noses
and ears. It has cells called ________that produce collagen and chondroitin sulfate (a protein-carbohydrate complex that forms the matrix of the cartilage)
e. ________- also has a matrix of collagen which is made by cells called
________.
f. ________- has a matrix of ______with red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets in it.
3. Nervous Tissue senses stimuli and sends ________to other cells. It is made of
cells called ________.
4. Muscle Tissue is made of long cells called muscle ____________.
There are 3 kinds of muscle tissue:
a. ________which attaches to and moves bones. It is also called
________muscle since it has a striped appearance.
b. _________muscle lines the inside of organs such as the digestive tract and
moves materials through it. It does not have stripes and is ____________(it works without thinking about it and you can’t make it move)
c. ________muscle is found only in the heart. It is striated and involuntary. Cardiac cells that touch each other will contract (beat) together.
Tissues are organized into ________such as the stomach. Many organs are
suspended by sheets of tissue called _________.
Organs are organized into ________such as the digestive system.
There are 2 major body cavities:
________(chest) and ______(belly) which are divided
by the ________(a sheet of muscle used in breathing).
Homeostasis
Homeostasis can be defined as an animal’s ability to ________its internal environment. Examples include ________(body temperature), ______(water balance) and ______(getting rid of nitrogen-containing wastes such as ________from the breakdown of ______. Humans maintain an internal body temperature of 98.6 F, a ________ of 7.4 in our blood and interstitial fluid and a blood ________ level of 0.1%.
A ________is an animal that controls a certain aspect of its internal environment despite changes in the external environment.
Ex. A mammal controlling its body temp. is a thermoregulator
A _________is an animal that allows a certain environmental condition to control its body’s condition.
Ex. Spider crabs do not keep their water content stable. If put in water with too little salt, they will take in water until they die. They do not osmoregulate.
Most animals use a ________of regulating and conforming.
Regulation ________energy and ______and may not be worth it in certain cases.
There are 3 parts to the control of homeostasis: a _______ that detects the change from a
particular ________at which the body tries to maintain the factor, a
_________ center that processes the information and sends a signal through the
________.
Body temperature is regulated using a ________control system similar to a household heating system.
With negative feedback, a change in the system causes the control system to ________further change in the same direction.
Homeostasis can be __________ under various circumstances. Body temperature can be ________ for sleeping and rise upon waking. The body has ________ in which the body can override other controls (fever for example) __________ levels can be changed over a person’s lifetime or with a monthly cycle. ________is a process by which an individual animal adjusts to ______changes in its external environment.
Ex. Moving to a higher elevation causes ________production of red blood cells.
Some control systems use ______in which
mechanisms are triggered to ________the change in the same direction.
Ex. In childbirth, pressure of the baby’s head against the cervix sends signals to increase the strength of uterine contractions more which again increases the pressure….
Thermoreguation
Each animal has a specific temperature ________in which it is able to function
best. It tries to keep its _________ temperature within that range. Over time, its
heat ________balances the heat gain with its heat ________.
4 processes used to regulate heat:
1. ________is the transfer of heat between objects that are
________each other.
Ex. A person goes into a cool lake on a hot day to cool off.
2. _________is the transfer of heat by the movement of ________or a liquid past the animal.
Ex. Wind chill factor
3. _________is heat transferred by ______waves (which are given off by all objects warmer than absolute zero).
Ex. It is warmer to sit in the sun than the shade.
4. ________is the removal of heat from a surface of a liquid in
which some of its molecules are changing to a ________state.
Ex. Sweating
Ectotherms and endotherms
______are animals whose metabolic rate is too ________to
change its body temperature much. Therefore, its body temperature is determined by its
________. But this does not necessarily mean that its body
temperature ________a lot.
Ex. Fish in the ocean can have very stable body temperatures since the ocean water temp. is constant in some areas.
In an endotherm, its ________rate is high enough to keep its body
temperature ________than its environment, though it may still vary. Some
endotherms only have a high body temperature when they are ________. So an
ectothermic lizard may have a ________body temperature than a hibernating bear.
Advantages of endothermy include the ability to perform ________activity
for a longer period of time due to better ____________respiration and a stable
optimal ________for enzyme function. Endothermy is helpful on land
since the temperatures are more ________there. Endotherms can survive
in areas too hot or too cold for ________.
The disadvantage to being endothermic is that it is costly in terms of ________
consumption required to power it. (about 1500 kcal per day compared to ________kcal).
This is why ectothermy is still useful to ________, spiders,
________ and reptiles.
Physiological and behavioral adjustments for thermoregulation by endotherms
1. Animals can adjust the ________of heat exchange between the animal and its environment.
A. ________such as fur, feathers and fat under the skin. Mammals
and birds can __________out their feathers or fur to trap more warm air and stay
warmer. We get ________in an attempt to do this. Hair loses its
insulating power when __________so marine mammals often have thick fat called
________to insulate their bodies instead.
B. The ability to change the ________between the body core
and the skin. ______opens blood vessels near the body surface
to cool the body. ________closes those blood vessels to keep the heat in.
C. ________is
when the arteries and _________ to a limb in colder conditions (such as the feet of a
duck on ice) are ______to each other to minimize heat loss to the ________.
Heat is transferred to the ________in the vein since heat moves from
________to colder areas.
Diagram:
D. Blood flow can also be changed to certain body ________to make them warmer or cooler.
Ex. Arctic wolves can reduce blood to the pads of their feet to keep them just above freezing to reduce heat loss.
2. __________ by evaporation.
Ex. Panting or sweating
3. ________can be changed to help alter body temperature.
Ex. Sunning on a warm rock or moving to the shade.
4. Changing the rate of ________production.
One way is by ________which increases ______activity
which requires __________ which is produced by increasing metabolism
which in turn creates __________. Another way is by ______
______in which hormones cause the mitochondria to increase
their metabolic activity but produce heat instead of ________. This can occur all
over the body, but especially in the ________in the neck and between the shoulders of some animals.
Ectotherms
Amphibians tend to lose heat by _________since their skin stays
moist. They maintain heat by ________to sunny areas or shady areas depending on their need. Similar species have very different average body temperatures.
Reptiles also ______from place to place during the day to try to maintain
their body temperature. A few reptiles have temporary ____________while taking care of their eggs.
Ex. Female pythons ________to raise their metabolic rate while sitting on their eggs.
Most fish are ectotherms and their body temperature is very close to that of the
________ they are in. There are a few fish that are ____________such
as the great white __________ and bluefin tuna. They are very ________
swimmers to produce heat by metabolism. Also, the main swimming muscles are deep
inside where the temperature is _________due to a heat exchanger set up.
Most insects are also ________, but a few such as ______and
moths are endothermic. These insects use ________to warm up their
muscles before flight. The flight itself produces ________due to the higher
metabolic rate. In cold weather, honeybees ________together to retain heat.
Adjustment to changing temperatures
In humans, the “thermostat” is located in the ________of the brain.
Receptor cells in the _________ and the hypothalamus send messages via nerves to
inform it of the body temperature. The hypothalamus sends ________ ______messages
and uses a ________loop to control the body temperature.
Animals put into a new temperature range can ________- adjust
over a period of several weeks or months. Endotherms often adjust their amount of
________and sometimes their capacity for metabolic ________
production. Mammal cells in culture that are shocked by a rapid ___________
increase will produce ________that
maintain other proteins that would otherwise be ________by the
extreme heat. Cells produce other ________proteins in response to
changes in pH, toxins or viral infections. Bacteria, yeast and ________also produce stress-induced proteins.
Ectotherms acclimatize at a ________level by using different
________with a different temperature range or their proportions of
________fats in their cell membranes. Some species of frogs and many
arthropods produce ________which are antifreeze compounds in their cells to help them survive the winter.
________is a physiological state of low activity and metabolism that animals use in poor conditions when it is too hot or too cold or there is too little food.
________is one form of torpor used in the winter. Hibernating
animals can reduce their body temperature to ______degrees C or even as low as
slightly below 0. This saves lots of ____________so the animal can rely on its fat reserves for months.
______is a summer form of torpor.
Some animals even use torpor on a ________basis, such as bats in the daytime and hummingbirds at night.
by thermogenesis.
Bioenergetics of animals
Bioenergetics is how ____________is used by an organism.
Diagram of animal bioenergetics:
The flow of energy through an animal sets limits to its ________, growth, reproduction and food needs.
An animal’s ________ is the sum of all of its energy requiring biochemical reactions over a given time interval. (Usually in Kcal/min)
Metabolic rate can be determined by:
1. _________ since almost all the chemical energy used in cellular respiration is given off as heat. The animal is put into a closed, insulated chamber called
a _________with a device attached that records heat loss.
2. ______________consumption can be measured
3. _____________ given off can also be measured.
There is an ________relationship between metabolic rate and size.
Organisms that are smaller have ________metabolic rates.
The ________metabolic rate is the rate for an animal that is ________, not growing, with an empty stomach and no stress.
In ectotherms, the metabolic rate increases if the temperature ________.
The metabolic rate of an ectotherm must specify a temperature and is called the
________metabolic rate.
Metabolic rate ________with different activities. During intense activity,
the energy for metabolism is first supplied by ________already in the muscles and by
ATP made by _________. But if the intense activity continues, this shifts to
ATP made by ________respiration, but the
maximum metabolic rate must ________for this. (You can’t sprint for hours!)
The maximum metabolic rate is ________for endotherms than for ectotherms. (An alligator can tie you in a sprint, but you’ll beat it in a marathon)
An animal’s use of energy is divided between ___________ (which produces and uses
ATP), ________, ________control and
________. Amounts differ between species and individuals.