Anatomical Regions, Positions and Terminology

Shara M. Marshall, M.S.

ANATOMICAL REGIONS, POSITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY

Overview

Anatomy:

Physiology:

Function:

Levels of Structural Organization

Chemical:

Cellular:

Tissue:

Organ:

Organ system:

Organismal:

Survival Needs

1.Nutrients

•

2.Oxygen

•

3.Water

•

4.Normal body temperature

•

5.Appropriate atmospheric pressure

•

Homeostasis

Definition:

Components of a Control Mechanism (contain at least the following three components)

1.Receptor (sensor)

•

2.Control center

•

3.Effector

•

Negative Feedback



Example: Regulation of body temperature

Positive Feedback



Example:

•Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin

Anatomical Position

Purpose:

Standard anatomical body position:

•

Directional Terms

Superior (cranial) -
Inferior (caudal) -
Ventral (anterior) -
Dorsal (posterior)-
Medial-
Lateral-
Intermediate-
Proximal –
Distal -
Superficial-
Deep-

Regional Terms

Regional terms:

View:View:

Body Planes and Sections

Sagittal plane

•

Midsagittal (median) plane

•

Parasagittal plane

•

Frontal (coronal) plane

•

Transverse (horizontal) plane

•

Body Cavities

Two Large Cavities:

Dorsal cavity encloses:

Two subdivisions:

•Cranial cavity

•Encases:

•Vertebral cavity

•Encases:

Ventral cavity

•Houses:

•Two subdivisions (separated by diaphragm):

•

Thoracic cavity subdivisions:

•Two pleural cavities

•Each one houses:

•Mediastinum

•Contains:

•Also contains:

•Pericardial cavity

•Encloses:

Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions:

•Abdominal cavity

•Contains:

•Pelvic cavity

•Contains:

Abdominopelvic Regions

Nine divisions:

BASIC CHEMISTRY

Matter and Composition of Matter

Definition:

Matter is composed of elements -

Atoms-

Atomic Structure

Neutrons

• •Mass =

Protons

• •Mass =

Electrons

•

•Mass =

•Equal in number to:

Energy

Definition:

Types of energy:

•Kinetic:

•Potential:

•Electrical:

Identifying Elements

Atoms of different elements contain different numbers of protons

•Compare hydrogen, helium and lithium

Atomic number =

Mass number =

•

•Isotopes =

Atoms of Elements can Combine Chemically with other atoms to form Molecules and Compounds

•Molecule: (e.g., H2 or C6H12O6)

•Compound: (e.g., C6H12O6)

Chemical Bonds



Octet rule:

Chemically Inert Elements



Chemically Reactive Elements



TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS

Ionic Bonds

Ions are formed by:

•Anions (– charge):

•Cations (+ charge):

Attraction of opposite charges results in:

Covalent Bonds

Formed by sharing of two or more valence shell electrons



Sharing of electrons may be equal or unequal

•Equal sharing produces:

•CO2

Unequal sharing by atoms with different electron-attracting abilities produces:

•H2O

Hydrogen Bonds

Attractive force between electropositive hydrogen of one molecule and an electronegative atom of another molecule

TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Synthesis Reactions

A + B  AB

•

Decomposition Reactions

AB  A + B

•

CLASSES OF COMPOUNDS

Inorganic compounds

•Do not contain:(ex’s. water, salts, and many acids and bases)

Organic compounds

•Contain:(ex’s. carbohydrates, fats, proteins, nucleic acids)

Water



Salts

Ionic compounds that dissociate in water

Acids

Acids:

•HCl  H+ + Cl–

Bases

Bases:

•NaOH  Na+ + OH–

Acid-Base Concentration

Acid solutions contain higher concentrations of H+

•As [H+] increases:

Basic solutions contain higher concentrations of OH–

•As [H+] decreases (or as [OH–] increases):

pH =

Neutral solutions:

•pH =

•

Acidic solutions

•pH =

•

Basic solutions

•pH=

•

For the following organic compounds, they are formed by a synthesis type of chemical reaction and broken down by a chemical reaction called hydrolysis.

Carbohydrates

Sugars and starches whose building blocks =

Three classes

•Monosaccharides-

•Disaccharides-

•Polysaccharides-

Functions

•Primary role:

Lipids



Main types:

•Triglycerides

•Phospholipids

•Steroids

Triglycerides

Defined as:

Building blocks =

Main functions

•

Phospholipids

Similar to triglycerides:

•Building blocks =

“Head” and “tail” regions:

Important in:

Steroids

Steroids—

Ex’s. -Cholesterol, vitamin D, steroid hormones, and bile salts

Proteins

Building blocks =

After amino acids are linked together:

This folding process results in four different levels of protein structure:

Protein Denaturation

Definition:

A denatured protein is:

Enzymes



Biological catalysts

•Function:

Nucleic Acids

DNA and RNA

•

Building blocks =

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

Four bases:

•adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T)



Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

Four bases:

•adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and uracil (U)



Three varieties of RNA carry out the DNA orders for protein synthesis

•

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)



Function:

•Phosphorylation:

•

Generalized Cell

• All cells:

• Human cells have three basic parts:

•Plasma membrane—

•Cytoplasm—

•Nucleus—

The Plasma Membrane is a bimolecular layer of phospholipids and proteins and plays a dynamic role in cellular activity:

•The plasma membrane separates:

•The plasma membrane is semi-permeable which means that:

Types of Membrane Transport

•A concentration gradient is:

•Passive Transport

•

•Substance moves:

•Active Transport

•

•Substances are moved/”pumped”:

Passive Transport

•What determines whether or not a substance can passively crossthe plasma membrane?

Three Types of Passive Transport Across Cellular membranes

•Simple diffusion

•Facilitated diffusion

•Osmosis

Passive Transport: Simple Diffusion

•What types of substances use simple diffusion to cross the plasma membrane?

•

Passive Transport: Facilitated Diffusion

•What types of substances use facilitated diffusion to cross the plasma membrane?

•

•Can pass through:

Passive Transport: Osmosis

•

•Water diffuses through plasma membranes:

•Mainly through channels called aquaporins (AQPs)

Importance of Osmosis

•When osmosis occurs:

•A change in cell volume:

Tonicity

•Defined as:

•Isotonic:

•Hypertonic:

•Hypotonic:

Active Transport

Defined as:
The Sodium-potassium pump (Na+-K+ ATPase) is a specific example of active transport

Other Cellular Organelles:

Membranous structures
Nucleus with chromatin-

Mitochondria –

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (rough and smooth) –

Golgi Apparatus-

Lysosomes-

Non-membranous structures
Centrioles –

Cytoskeleton -

Extensions of the plasma membrane
Cilia are –

Flagella are –

Microvilli are -

The Cell Cycle

•Includes:

•Interphase

•

•Three Subphases:

•Gap 1 (G1)-

•Synthesis Phase (S phase)-

•Gap 1 (G2)-

•Cell Division (mitotic phase or mitosis)

•Includes four sub phases of mitosis (PMAT) and cytokinesis

Mitosis

Purpose:

Does not occur in:

During the S-phase of Interphase DNA is Replicated

•Helicase:

•DNA polymerase:

•End result:

•This process is called:

•After DNA has been replicated:

Mitosis and Cytokinesis

Mitosis—four stages of nuclear division:

•Prophase -

•Metaphase -

•Anaphase -

•Telophase -

•Cytokinesis -

There are four tissue types in the body

•Epithelial tissue

•Connective tissue

•Muscle tissue

•Nerve tissue

Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue

1.Cells have polarity—

•

2.Are composed of closely packed cells

•

3.Avascular

4.High rate of regeneration

Classification of Epithelia

•Ask two questions:

1.How many layers?

1 =

>1 =

•What type of cell?

•

•(If stratified, name according to apical layer of cells)

Overview of Epithelial Tissues

Epithelia: Simple Squamous

*Description:

*Function:

*Location:

Epithelia: Simple Cuboidal

*Description:

*Function:

*Location:

Epithelia: Simple Columnar

*Description:

*Function:

*Location:

Epithelia: Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium

*Description:

*Function:

*Location:

Epithelia: Stratified Squamous

*Description:

*Function:

*Location:

Epithelia: Stratified Cuboidal and Columnar Epithelium

*Description:

*Function:

*Location:

Epithelia: Transitional Epithelium

*Description:

*Function:

*Location:

Glandular Epithelia

Gland:

Two major types:

Endocrine glands-
Exocrine glands-

Connective Tissue

•Most abundant and widely distributed tissue type

Flow Chart:

Characteristics of Connective Tissue

•Connective tissues have:

*Cells separated by nonliving extracellular matrix (ground substance and fibers)

Extracellular Matrix

•Ground substance

•Components

•

•Fibers (three types)

•Collagen

•

•Elastic

•

•Reticular

•

•Cells of Connective Tissue

•“blasts” = Mitotically active and secretory cells

•“cytes” = Mature cells

•Fibroblasts in :

•Chondroblasts and chondrocytes in:

•Osteoblasts and osteocytes in:

•Hematopoietic stem cells in:

Overview of Connective Tissues

•Connective Tissues: Osseous

*Description:

*Function:

*Location:

•Connective Tissues: Hyaline Cartilage

*Description:

*Function:

*Location:

•Connective Tissues: Elastic Cartilage

*Description:

*Function:

*Location:

•Connective Tissues: Fibrocartilage Cartilage

*Description:

*Function:

*Location:

•Connective Tissues: Dense Regular Tissue

*Description:

*Function:

*Location:

•Connective Tissues: Dense Irregular Tissue

*Description:

*Function:

*Location:

•

•Connective Tissues: Areolar Connective Tissue

*Description:

*Function:

*Location:

•Connective Tissues: Adipose Connective Tissue

*Description:

*Function:

*Location:

•Connective Tissues: Reticular Connective Tissue

*Description:

*Function:

*Location:

•Connective Tissues: Blood

*Description:

*Function:

*Location:

Muscle Tissue (Three Types)

•Skeletal Muscle

*Description:

*Function:

*Location:

•Cardiac Muscle

* Description:

*Function:

*Location:

•Smooth muscle

*Description:

*Function:

*Location:

Nervous Tissue

*Description:

*Function:

*Location:

Steps in Wound Repair

•Inflammation

•Organization and restored blood supply

•Regeneration and fibrosis

SKIN AND BODY MEMBRANES

Epithelial Membranes

•The cutaneous membrane is the:

•Mucous membranes

•Mucosae

• (e.g., digestive and respiratory tracts)

•Serous Membranes

•Paired membranes that line:

•Parietal layer -

•Visceral layer –

• Serous Membranes are named based on their location:

•Parietal and visceral pleura surround:

•Parietal and visceral pericardium surround:

•Parietal and visceral peritoneum surround:

Skin (Integument)

•Consists of three major regions

1.Epidermis—

2.Dermis—

3.Hypodermis (superficial fascia)—

•

Epidermis

•

•Cells of epidermis

•Keratinocytes—

•Melanocytes

•

Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Basale

•

•Also called stratum germinativum:

•Cells travel from basal layer to surface

•Takes 25–45 days

Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Spinosum

•

Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Granulosum

•

Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Lucidum

•

Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Corneum

•

•Functions

•

Dermis

•Made up of Twolayers:

•Papillary layer

•Reticular layer

Layers of the Dermis: Papillary Layer

•Papillary layer

•Composed of:

•Contains dermal papillae which may have:

•

Layers of the Dermis: Reticular Layer

•Reticular layer

•Composed of:

•

Skin Color

•Three pigments contribute to skin color:

1.Melanin

•

2.Carotene

•

3.Hemoglobin

•

Appendages of the Skin

•Derived from the epidermis

•

Sweat Glands

•Two main types of sweat (sudoriferous) glands

1.Eccrine sweat glands— abundant on palms, soles, and forehead

•Sweat:

•

2.Apocrine sweat glands—confined to:

•Sebum:

•

Sebaceous (Oil) Glands

•

•Sebum

•

Hair

•Functions

•

•Consists of:

Hair Follicle

•Two-layered wall consisting of:

•Hair bulb:

•Hair follicle receptor (root hair plexus):

•

•Arrector pili

•

Structure of a Nail

•

•Structures of the nail:

Functions of the Integumentary System

1.Protection—

•Chemical

•

•Physical/mechanical barriers

•

•Biological barriers

•

2.Body temperature regulation

•

3.Cutaneous sensations

•

4.Metabolic functions

•

5.Blood reservoir—

6.Excretion—

Skin Cancer

•Three major types:

•Basal cell carcinoma

•Squamous cell carcinoma

•Melanoma

Basal Cell Carcinoma

•

•Appearance:

•

Squamous Cell Carcinoma

•

•Appearance:

•

Melanoma

•

•Appearance:

•

Melanoma

•Characteristics (ABCDE rule)

A: Asymmetry-

B: Border-

C: Color-

D: Diameter-

E: Evolution-

Partial-Thickness Burns

•First degree

•

•Second degree

•

Full-Thickness Burns

•Third degree

•

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

Bones: An Overview

Functions of Bones

•Support

•

•Protection

•

•Movement

•

•Storage

•

•Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis) in:

•

Classification of Bones by Shape

•Long bones

•

•Short bones

•

•Flat bones

•

•Examples:

•Irregular bones

•

•Examples:

Bone Markings (Refer to Table 5.1)

Bone Markings: Projections

•Sites of muscle and ligament attachment

•Tuberosity—rounded projection

•Crest—narrow, prominent ridge

•Trochanter—large, blunt, irregular surface

•Tubercle—small rounded projection

•Epicondyle—raised area above a condyle

•Spine—sharp, slender projection

•Process—any bony prominence

•Projections that help to form joints

•Head - bony expansion carried on a narrow neck

•Facet - smooth, nearly flat articular surface

•Condyle - rounded articular projection

•Ramus -armlike bar

Bone Markings: Openings

•Meatus -canal-like passageway

• Sinus - cavity within a bone

•Fossa -shallow, basinlike depression

•Groove- furrow

•Fissure -farrow, slitlike opening

•Foramen -round or oval opening through a bone

Bone Textures

•Compact bone

•

•Spongy bone

•

Membranes of Bones

Periosteum (fibrous connective tissue)

oSurrounds:

oContains:

oSecured to compact bone by:

Endosteum (areolar CT)

Structure of a Long Bone

•Diaphysis (shaft)

•

•Epiphyses

•

Structure of Short, Irregular, and Flat Bones

•

“think of a stiffened spongy bone sandwich”

Microscopic Anatomy of Bone: Compact Bone

•Haversian system, or osteon—structural unit

•Lamellae

•

•Central (Haversian) canal

•

•Perforating (Volkmann’s) canals

•

•Lacunae—

•Canaliculi—

Microscopic Anatomy of Bone: Spongy Bone

•

Chemical Composition of Bone: Organic

•Bone cells: osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts

•Osteoid—organic bone matrix secreted by osteoblasts

•

Chemical Composition of Bone: Inorganic

•Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts)

•

Bone Formation, Growth and Remodeling

•Ossification—

•Stages

•Bone formation—

•Postnatal bone growth—

•Bone remodeling and repair—

Growth in Length of Long Bones

•Interstitial growth:

•

Growth in Width of All Bones

•Appositional growth:

•

Control of Remodeling

•What controls continual remodeling of bone?

•

Hormonal Control of Blood Ca2+

•Primarily controlled by parathyroid hormone (PTH)

 Blood Ca2+ levels



______



PTH stimulates osteoclasts to degrade bone matrix and release Ca2+



______

Response to Mechanical Stress

•Curved bones are thickest where they are most likely to buckle

•Trabeculae form along lines of stress

•Large, bony projections occur where heavy, active muscles attach

Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture

1.Hematoma forms

•

2. The break is splinted by a fibrocartilage callus

•

3.Bony callus formation

•

4.Bone remodeling

•

Homeostatic Imbalances: Read about Osteoporosis and understand its risk factors, symptoms and characteristics.

The Skeleton

Two Major Divisions of the Skeletal System:

The Axial Skeleton Includes Three Regions:

The Skull

Two sets of bones

1.Cranial bones (8 cranial bones)

oEnclose the brain in the cranial cavity

oCalvaria:

oCranial base:

2.Facial bones (14 Facial bones)

oCavities for:

oProvide sties of attachment for:

oAll skull bones are joined by:

Frontal Bone



Parietal Bones and Major Associated Sutures

•

•Four sutures mark the articulations of parietal bones with frontal, occipital, and temporal bones:

1.Coronal suture—

2.Sagittal suture—

3.Lambdoid suture—

4.Squamous (squamosal) sutures—

Occipital Bone



Contains:

Temporal Bones

Inferior to parietal bones

External acoustic canal:

Zygomatic process:

Mastoid process:

Styloid process:

Mandibular fossa:

Sphenoid Bone



Three pairs of processes:

Contains the:

Ethmoid Bone

Superior part of :

Contains:

Mandible



Temporomandibular joint:

Mandibular condyle articulates w:

Maxillary Bones



Zygomatic Bones



Nasal Bones and Lacrimal Bones

Nasal bones

Form:

Lacrimal bones



Lacrimal fossa houses:

Palatine Bones and Vomer

•Palatine bones



•Vomer



Inferior Nasal Conchae

Form part of lateral walls of nasal cavity

Orbits

Encase:

Sites of attachment for:

Formed by:



Hyoid Bone



Site of attachment for:

Vertebral Column

•

•Flexible curved structure containing 26 irregular bones (vertebrae)

Cervical vertebrae (7)—vertebrae of:

Thoracic vertebrae (12)—vertebrae of:

Lumbar vertebrae (5)—vertebra of:

Sacrum—bone inferior to:

Coccyx—terminus of vertebral column

Vertebral Column: Curvatures

•Increase the resilience and flexibility of the spine

Primary curvatures



Secondary curvatures



Read about Abnormal spine curvatures (Scoliosis, Kyphosis, Lordosis)

General Structure of Vertebrae

•Body or centrum



•Vertebral arch

Formed from:

•Vertebral foramen



Seven processes per vertebra:

Spinous process—

Transverse processes (2)—

Superior articular processes (2)—

Inferior articular processes (2)—

Cervical Vertebrae

C1 to C7:

C3 to C7 share the followingfeatures



Transverse foramen in:

C1 (atlas) and C2 (axis) have unique features

Atlas (C1)



Consists of:

Superior articular facets articulate with:

Axis (C2)



Thoracic Vertebrae

T1 to T12



Lumbar Vertebrae

L1 to L5



Sacrum and Coccyx

•Sacrum

oForms:

oContains the sacral canal for:

oArticulates with:

•Coccyx

oArticulates superiorly with:

Thoracic (Rib) Cage

•Composed of

 Thoracic vertebrae

 Sternum

 Ribs and their costal cartilages

Sternum

Three fused bones

oManubrium

oBody

oXiphoid process

Ribs and Their Attachments

12 pairs

oAll attach:

Pairs 1 through 7

oAttach:

Pairs 8 through 10

oFalse ribs

Pairs 11-12

The Appendicular Skeleton consists of the bones of the upper and lower limbs and their girdles (pectoral and pelvic)

Pectoral Girdle (Shoulder Girdle)

Clavicles and the scapulae

oAttach:

oProvide:

Clavicles

Acromial (lateral) end:

Sternal (medial) end:

Scapulae (Shoulder Blades)



Three fossa are the site of origin for the rotator cuff muscles:

The Upper Limb

Arm

Forearm

Hand

o8 carpal bones in the wrist

o5 metacarpal bones in the palm

o14 phalanges in the fingers

Humerus



Head of Humerus Articulates with:

Contains:

Articulates inferiorly with the radius and ulna via the:

Bones of the Forearm

•Ulna

oContains:

•Radius

oContains:

Hand: Carpus

Eight bones in two rows

Only scaphoid and lunate:

Hand: Metacarpus and Phalanges

Metacarpus

Phalanges

oEach finger (digit), except the thumb, has three phalanges-

oThe thumb:

Pelvic (Hip) Girdle

•Consists of:

Attaches:

Transmits:

•Each coxal bone consists of three fused bones: ilium, ischium, and pubis



oIliac crest, sacroiliac joint

Ischium-

Pubis

oPubic symphysis, pubic arch

Comparison of Male and Female Pelves

Female pelvis

oAdapted for:

oTrue pelvis:

oCavity of the true pelvis is:

Male pelvis

oAdapted for:

oCavity of the true pelvis is:

The Lower Limb

Three segments of the lower limb

oThigh:

oLeg:

oFoot: 7 tarsal bones in the ankle, 5 metatarsal bones in the metatarsus, and 14 phalanges in the toes

Femur



Femoral head articulates:

Contains:

Bones of the Leg

•Tibia

oArticulates with:

oContains:

•Fibula

oArticulates with:

oContains:

Foot: Tarsals

Foot: Metatarsals and Phalanges

•Metatarsals:

•Phalanges

oEach digit (except the hallux) has three phalanges –

oThe great toe:

JOINTS

Joints (Articulations)

•Articulation—

•Functions of joints:

•

Joints can be classified Functionally and Structurally

Functional Classification of Joints

•

•Three functional classifications:

•Synarthroses—

•Amphiarthroses—

•Diarthroses—

Structural Classification of Joints

•Based on:

•Three structural classifications:

•Fibrous (As a general rule, these are immovable)

•Cartilaginous (Both movable and immovable, most are amphiarthroses)

•Synovial (All are freely movable)

Fibrous Joints

•Bones joined by:

•

•Three types:Sutures, Syndesmoses, Gomphoses

Fibrous Joints: Sutures

•

Fibrous Joints: Syndesmoses