African American Middle School Girls in an Urban Setting Perception of STEM

LaChanda N. Hare

A Dissertation Submitted to the

Gardner-Webb University School of Education

in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of Doctor of Education

Gardner Webb University

2016

Approval Page

The dissertation was submitted by LaChanda Hare under the direction of the persons listed below. It was submitted to the Gardner-Webb University School of Education and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education at Gardner-Webb University.

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Kelly Clark, Ed.D. Committee Chair Date

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Adriane Mingo, Ed.D. Committee Member Date

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Kenneth Wilson, Ed.D. Committee Member Date

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Douglas Eury, Ed.D. Date

Dean of the School of Education

Acknowledgements

Abstract

Table of Contents

LIST OF TABLESiv

LIST OF FIGURESv

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION1

Statement of the Problem2

Rationale for the Study6

Research Questions9

Theoretical Framework9

Limitations11

Definition of Major Terms12

Summary13

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE14

Theoretical Framework15

STEM Education K-1224

Technology and Engineering Integration26

The Benefits of STEM Education29

21st Century Learning Skills29

Narrowing the Achievement Gap34

College & Career Readiness41

The Underrepresentation of African American Females in STEM Fields24

Rigorous Coursework45

Unqualified Teachers47

Interest and Attitude47

Learning Environment52

Stereotypes57

Role Models62

Extra-Curricular STEM Activities65

Summary68

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY70

Research Questions70

Research Design and Rationale71

Setting and Participants73

Procedure74

The role of the researcher74

Survey instrumentation75

The STEM-CIS without an engineering subscale75

Survey data collection and analysis79

Focus group and interview data collection and analysis80

Interview data collection and analysis…………………………………………………………………… 80

Plans for reliability and validity81

Summary

REFERENCES85

APPENDICES93

List of Tables

List of Figures

Fig. 1. The Socio-Cognitive Career Theory……………………………………………………………23

Chapter 1

Introduction

Some change is inevitable but necessary (Fullan, 1993). Global warming, clean energy, a cure for cancer, efficient transportation, and national security are examples of national concerns that need consistent innovative solutions. With a growing concern of how to meet the country’s needs and demands for sustained innovation, the education system and workforce have become targeted areas of focus (STEM Education Coalition, 2013; The White House., 2013). However, there is a growing concern that not enough attention is devoted to academic and career equity across genders, ethnic groups, and socioeconomic status to ensure that all groups are adequately prepared to address the country’s present and future issues (National Science Board, 2010). If many of the future problems the United States will face are unavoidable, then the country needs to empower and prepare all students, regardless of their gender, race, or the social class they belong to, in order to become capable citizens for addressing the concerns of the nation. The reality is that the nation’s problems won’t solve themselves but will require a team of talented individuals with skill sets across multiple disciplines that are capable of producing logical and ethical solutions to the nation’s challenges (The White House.n.d.).

A national and state focus on science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) is regarded by many as the answer to sustaining the country’s innovation and global competitiveness (Stephen, Bracey, & Locke, 2012). President Barack Obama orchestrated a national STEM movement that seeks to prepare all students in science and mathematics subjects as well as generate a pool of qualified STEM teachers (President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology, 2010). STEM education introduces students to real-world problems through a hands-on and inquiry-based approach, while teaching students important skills such as: problem solving, collaboration, critical thinking, and effective communication (NSF, 2012). As a result, STEM is thought to prepare all citizens for the workforce regardless of their career interest because the skills are beneficial to any profession (Thomasian, 2011).

Statement of the Problem

Unfortunately, one of the greatest fears facing the country’s ability to remain competitive is the shortage of qualified workers to enter the STEM pipeline (PCAST, 2010). The U.S. is not preparing enough individuals to enter science and mathematics fields (Stearns, Morgan, M. Capraro, & R. Capraro, 2012; PCAST, 2010). The number of U.S. students majoring in a STEM discipline and earning a degree in a STEM field is low when compared to other countries (Stearns, Morgan, M. Capraro, & R. Capraro, 2012). Studies also show that students in countries like China, Taiwan, Korea, and Switzerland are outperforming students in the U.S. in math and science subjects (Modi, Schoenburg, & Salmond, 2012). In fact, researchers acknowledge that students in the U.S. are losing interest in science and math subjects as early as late elementary and middle school (Byler, 2000).

The lack of interest in STEM subjects is especially evident in economically disadvantaged and minority students attending underachieving schools than in students attending more well-off schools (Friedlaender et al., 2014; Lafee, Espinosa, Moore, & Lodree, 2003; Mueller, 2005). This disinterest can be attributed to a number of factors to include: limited resources, inadequate STEM curriculum, the absence of competent STEM instructors, the lack of STEM role models, and the inability to connect with the curriculum (Barton, 2004). Furthermore, with the expectation of all public school students demonstrating proficiency in reading and mathematics by 2014, NCLB required that students show Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) or annual improvement on the standardized test (U.S. Congress, 2002). Regrettably, students attending low-performing schools are taxed with spending additional instructional time on test preparation rather than being engaged in meaningful, authentic, and relevant experiences involving science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (Barton, 2004; Friedlaender, 2014)like robotics, biomedical engineering, mathematical patterns in the real world, and PLTW courses.

Currently the STEM workforce is dominated by White males. Women and ethnic minorities have historically been the least represented in these competitive fields (Landivar, 2013; The White House, 2013). According to the National Action Council for Minorities in Engineering, Inc. (2008), “the solution…to America’s competitiveness problem is to activate the hidden workforce of young men and women who have traditionally been underrepresented in STEM careers-African Americans, American Indians, and Latinos” (cited in NSTA, 2008, para 2).

Despite an increase in the number of women entering STEM fields over the past decades, women still trail behind men in the male dominated fields (NSF, Science & Engineering Indicators, 2008). Women make up approximately 46% of the total workforce but only 26% of the STEM workers (The U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics, and Statistics Administration, 2011). Women are leading in the biological sciences and outnumbering males in the social sciences (Landivar, 2013; VanLeuvan, 2004). However, the greatest underrepresentation of females is in engineering, computer science, and physics [NSF, Science & Engineering Indicators, 2012; Landivar, 2013]. Males are six times more likely than females to enroll in an engineering course (NSF-NCSES, 2012).

The disparity of STEM degrees and careers are even more alarming for African American females. According to data from the US Census Bureau, White and Asian populations are over represented in STEM fields, while Black and Hispanic populations are underrepresented (Landivar, 2013; Tsui, 2007). Whites make up 71% of the STEM workforce with Hispanics at 7% and Blacks at 6% (Landivar, 2013). When compared to White females in STEM fields (24%), African American females make up only 2% (Landivar, 2013).

According toa review of the literature, the barriers that cause women to leave STEM occupations seem to be related to the obstacles causing young girls to become disinterested in STEM subjects early in their schooling: stereotype threat (Steele & Aronson, 1995), competitive environment (Niederle & Vesterlund, 2010, p.130), lack of confidence (Byler, 2000), and lack of female role models (LeGrand, 2013). Negative stereotypes impact African American students’ interest and performance in STEM subjects (Steele & Aronson, 1995). Researchersposit that because Blacks are often confronted by negative stereotypes regarding academic performance and low standardized test scores, students are more likely to experience a decrease in academic performance (McGlone & Aronson ,2006; Steele & Aronson ,1995 ). Unlike their White counterparts, Black females experience a “double bind” – cultural and gender stereotypes (Farinde & Lewis, 2012). In addition, barriers such as unequal access to advanced coursework (College Board, 2012; Farinde & Lewis, 2012) and the lack of high-quality teachers (Barton, 2004; Farinde & Lewis, 2012; “Inequality,” n.d.) play a role in the STEM disparity.

Chen (2012) acknowledges that a successful educational experience in science and technology could lead to a career in those fields. However, the lack of academic preparation in STEM coursework can create challenges when pursuing a career in a STEM profession (Chen, 2012). Students from disadvantaged backgrounds are less likely to have access to advanced science and math courses in high school, which negatively impact entrance and completion of STEM degree programs (Tyson et al., 2007). Similarly, individuals leaving STEM fields at the highest rate resemble those of middle and high school-aged students who perform the lowest in science and mathematics achievement (Chen, 2013), which are typically minority students from low socioeconomic and underrepresented populations (Chen, 2013; Farinde & Lewis, 2012). When compared to White college students in a STEM program, Black students are more likely to switch majors to a non-STEM degree (Chen, 2013). The number increases significantly for African American college students who attended underperforming secondary schools (Chen, 2013). Thus, if the U.S. desires to grow the number of African American females entering STEM fields, then it may be beneficial for the country to be proactive and address the STEM disparities during the elementary and middle school years.

Middle school is characterized by a decline in academic performance, self-esteem, and school engagement (Blackwell et al., 2007). Early exposure to STEM education can positively impact students’ perception of STEM by capturing their interest at a young age (Jayarajah, 2014). Introducing students to science and mathematics from an interactive approach builds confidence, competence, and interest in the subject areas (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009). The adolescent years are a great time to intervene because students are undecided in their attitudes towards science as a career option (CaleonSubramaniam, 2008). However, students either turn toward or away from STEM subjects (U.S. Department of Education, 2006). During the transitional years between elementary and high school, girls lose interest in science and mathematics (U.S. Department of Education, 2006). Research asserts that girls self-esteem and science and math confidence plummets during middle school. Tai et al. (2006) found that early adolescents who identified a strong interest in pursuing a career in science were three times more likely to earn a degree in science. “Aspirations become more realistic when [they are] based on student interests, perceived abilities, and individual characteristic” (Wyss et al., 2012, p. 504). This suggests that the shortage of STEM workers in the U.S. could possibly be the result of students not making a personal connection with the different types of jobs in the STEM pipeline during the early years of schooling, which then impacts their decision to pursue a degree or career in science, technology, engineering, or mathematics.

Rationale for the Study

Economic prosperity is tied to academic success (Niederle & Westerlund, 2010). “Math performance is a good indicator of income,” (Niederle & Westerlund, 2010, p.130). STEM jobs are the highest paying jobs and most require a strong knowledge of mathematical application for problem solving (Hill, Corbett, Rose, 2012). If Black girls are not enrolling higher level math courses, then unknowingly, they could be setting themselves up for academic and financial hardships. In addition to being well paid, job security is more promising for workers in science and engineering occupations than do other workers, (Hill, Corbett, Rose, 2012). The U.S. Department of Labor has projected that by 2018, the U.S. will have more than 1.2 million job openings in STEM fields (US Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2009). Mueller (2005) declared that “We do not want our girls to suffer in an adult life of poverty or in other adverse conditions associated with poor education outcomes, such as welfare delinquency or incarceration,” (p.2). Sincemultiple studies suggest that students from disadvantaged groups are the most vulnerable to failure in STEM degree programs (Chen, 2012; Farinde & Lewis, 2012; Lafee, Espinosa, Moore, & Lodree, 2013), waiting until high school and college to prepare students for a future job in STEM could be a career trap that further debilitates the country’s ability to compete globally and remain as national leaders. Research in this area would look closely at the influences that impede African American girls from pursuing advanced math and science courses and offer educators practical solutions to meeting the needs of this particular group. According to researcher Carol Dweck (2006), female learners are more likely to succeed in a STEM field when success is not directed toward science or math ability (nature), but instead with an understanding the necessary STEM skills can be learned (nurture).

“Engineers design many of the things we use daily - buildings, bridges, computers, cars, wheelchairs, and X-ray machines. When women are not involved in the design of these products, needs and desires unique to women may be overlooked,” (Hill, Corbett, & Rose, 2010). A diverse STEM workforce would offer a broad perspective to new developments (Steinke et al., 2007) and affect the level and type of jobs brought to the U.S. (Carrell, Page, & West, 2009). Having women contribute to new scientific and technological designs could “maximize innovation, creativity, and competitiveness” (Hill, Corbett, & Rose, 2010). This study may lead to a greater understanding of the science and math interests of African American female students that could potentially reveal unexploited developments in the current disciplines of engineering and computer science (American Educational Research Association Conference, April 2014).

With underrepresentation from women and disadvantaged groups in STEM fields, the U.S. could be overlooking untapped talent and potential from these populations (American Educational Research Association Conference, April 2014). Historically, males have outperformed females in mathematics (Hill, Corbett, & Rose, 2010; Sax, 2005). However, in recent years the gender gap in math performance has decreased significantly (Hyde et al., 2008). The greatest difference in performance is seen on standardized tests (Hill, Corbett, and Rose, 2010). Hill, Corbett, and Rose (2010) point out that nearly thirty years ago, the ratio of male to female scoring a 700 or higher on the math section of the SAT was 13:1. Today, that proportion is more like 3:1 (Hill, Corbett, Rose, 2010), suggesting that girls are performing almost equally as well as boys in mathematics.

Despite the fact that African American students typically perform lower than any other ethnic group in mathematical achievement, the drastic decline in the gender gap in math performance suggests that African American female students may already have the skills needed for successful entry into a STEM profession. Several studies suggest that girls hold themselves to a higher standard than boys in science and math achievement, which often times result in feeling incompetent and like the scientific disciplines are for males (Hill, Corbett, and Rose, 2010). This study can further investigate how African American females’ self-confidence in STEM courses impacts their career interest in STEM fields. In addition, the research may help educators understand the importance of communicating to female students that females achieve equally as well as male students in science and mathematics.

Without scientists, technicians, engineers, mathematicians, and other skilled workers, most new products and discoveries would never be developed. STEM workers drive our nation’s innovation and competitiveness by generating new ideas, new companies, and new industries, (US Department of Commerce, Economics, and Statistics, 2011. Knowing that female students who are academically capable of completing a STEM degree are dropping out of these programs to enter non-STEM programs suggests that there are STEM barriers not related to academic ability that need to be addressed in order to reduce the gender disparity that exists in the STEM pipeline. Because much of the research points back at the middle school years being the time when students lose interest in STEM subjects, and African Americans being the least represented in STEM professions, this study will focus on the STEM perception of African American female students in the 8th grade in an urban setting.

A limited amount of research has been conducted on African American middle school girls’ perception of science and mathematics academic and career interests. Scholars suggest more research on the reasons females from underrepresented population are leaving STEM majors and not entering these career fields is needed to in order to adequately address the disparity (Chen, 2013; Higher Education Research Institute, 2010). Currently, there isn’t a large scale study that focuses on the STEM perception of African American adolescent females. This study will add to the existing body of research by providing conclusions and implications that may be able to be generalized across many urban schools and districts that may address the STEM barriers of African American female students. It is a goal of the researcher to understand the barriers preventing African American girls from entering and remaining in the STEM pipeline.

Research Questions

The following three research questions are guiding the design of this study, including the data collection and analysis:

What in-school and out-of-school factors have the greatest influence on African American middle school girls’ perception of STEM?
How do African American middle school girls’ STEM self-efficacy and self-confidence impact interest and attitude towards STEM aspiration?
To what degree do African American middle school girls’ validate negative racial and gender stereotypes about ability in STEM education and STEM career fields?

TheoreticalFramework

Although a number of theories could have been used to address the gender and cultural disparities in STEM fields, Albert Bandura’s self-efficacy theory and Lent, Brown, and Hackett’s (1994; 2000) Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT)are the theoretical constructs governing this body of research. Both theories are derivatives of Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory, which is based on the premise that learning takes place through the interactions of behavior, personal factors and the environment, referred to as reciprocal determinism (Bandura, 1977). While more commonly viewed through a psychological lens, self-efficacy beliefs have become of interest to educational researchers within the past few decades to better understand the factors impacting student achievement, motivation, and interest in academic settings (Pajares, 2002).