MODULE I
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING CONCEPTS,
THEORIES, MODELS AND PERSPECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
Module I is an introduction to educational planning and management. It surveys planning and development in the Third World; presents the theories, concepts and rationale of planning; dissects various planning process models; and presents strategic planning perspectives. An understanding of strategic planning concepts, theories, process models and perspectives, and rationale is a good preparation for strategic plan crafting.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. Describe the beginnings of educational planning;
2. Discuss planning theories, concepts and rationale;
3. Explain the various planning process models; and
4. Describe the different planning perspectives.
LESSON 1
Planning and Development
in the Third World
THE FIRST DEVELOPMENT DECADE
After the Second World War, the United States together with other developed countries started a foreign aid program. The initiative, which began as a program for reconstruction, became economic and technical assistance in such areas as health, education and agriculture. Then it expanded to include public administration and management.
For more than a decade, university professors and private business consultants provided socio-economic programs and technical assistance in public administration and management to governments and universities in Asia, Latin America, and Africa. Western academicians and consultants exported to the recipient countries various administrative and financial processes and technologies, which were very important in fostering development in the Third World. This was based on the perception that recipient countries generally lacked the administrative capability for planning and implementing plans. To remedy the situation, administrative technologies were transferred to improve the machinery of the national governments of developing countries.
This intervention resulted to the adoption of development planning as a cornerstone in the pursuit of economic development in recipient countries.
Educational Planning in the Third World
Developed countries formally introduced educational planning in Third World countries in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The objectives of educational plans, which were integrated in national development plans, of Third World countries focused on overseeing the expansion of educational systems. Great hopes were placed in educational planning for it served as a foundation in setting objectives, goals and priorities, implementing educational policies, and maximizing the use of limited resources.
Singh (1990) enumerates the significant impact of educational planning in Third World countries during the late 1960s as follows: (a) the growth and development of educational systems; (b) development of educational administration and the setting up of planning organizations within the educational system; and (c) enhanced perception on the problem of efficiency in the educational system.
The Paris Conference on Policies for Educational Growth in the early parts of the 70s reviewed the nature and consequences of educational growth, dissected current problems, and came up with planning guidelines and policies. However, the proposed policies were not implemented because of the research results that highlighted the inadequacy of inputs in producing the desired educational outputs. Educational planning, therefore, veered toward the adoption of policies aimed at attaining effective educational outcomes concerning the learner given his socio-economic status and other resources.
The economic crises in the 1970s and 1980s brought about by the uncontrolled rise in the price of oil drastically changed the setting in which educational institutions in Third World countries operated. Many developing countries implemented major cuts in public expenditures which limited resources for education. Educational planning faced a new challenge in the 1990s that of developing a paradigm or approach of harmonizing the loose linkage between greatly reduced budget and the goal for quality education (Ross and Mahlch, 1990).
While Third World countries benefited immensely from educational planning from the 1960s to the 1990s, their educational systems also faced problems. Among these problems were: (a) excessive quantitative orientation, that is, planning approach had been predominantly quantitative both in analysis and normative aspects; (b) educational planning had been overly centralized in the decision-making process; (c) weakness in implementation; and (d) insufficiency of the evaluation dimension of educational planning (Singh, 1990).
As a field of study, educational planning managed to grow and progress even while it was initially an integral part of national development planning. Attracting a sizeable number of followers and adherents, educational planning developed as a separate field of specialization in educational management.
Planning in Higher Education in the Philippines
Educational planning in the Philippines is as old as its educational system. Educational surveys and studies were made to provide a basis for the restructuring of Philippine education. The more important ones were the Monroe Survey in 1925, the United Nations Economic and Social Commission (UNESCO) Mission in 1949, the joint Congressional Committee of Education Survey of 1949, the Swanson Survey in 1960, the Presidential Commission to Survey Philippine Education (PCSPE) in 1970, and the Congressional Committee on Education (EDCOM).
Interestingly, a significant point in the findings of the above surveys is the observation of the PCSPE that Philippine education was weak in educational planning. This observation is supported by several factors, namely: (a) the lack of a clear definition of the role of education in national development; (b) the absence of long-range goal setting performance targets for each operational component of the educational system; (c) the absence of policy guidelines that define the proper function of each educational level or sector; (d) the nature of decision making process of both individuals and educational institutions that is based on forced choice rather than guided selection; and (e) the disproportionate magnitude of educational responsibility relative to the capacity of the economy to support the corresponding requirements for educational service (Miclat, 2005).
Advent of Educational Planning
The promulgation of Presidential Decree No. 6-A, popularly known as the Educational Development Decree of 1992, gave emphasis to educational planning in education. The Decree provided for “… a broad general education that will assist each individual … to respond effectively to changing needs and conditions of the nation through a system of educational planning and evaluation.” The Integrated Reorganization Plan of 1972 put this into action by providing an office for Planning Service in the reorganized structure of the then Department of Education and Culture.
The three decades that followed had been problematic for tertiary education in the country. State-run universities and colleges had mushroomed from 23 in 1972 and 78 in 1984. Today, there are now more than 100 tax-funded colleges and universities in the Philippines. As a consequence of this proliferation of SUCs, the budget for education significantly increased from 1978 to 1990 resulting to the ballooning of the budget. Eventually, the budget of many SUCs had to be cut due to reduced public budget and increased debt burden.
The issuance of Letter of Instruction No. 1461 on May 23, 1985 provided the necessary impetus for planning among SUCs. The LOI required SUCs to formulate long-term development plans including a physical development plan that support the manpower goals of the region where the SUCs are located and of the entire country. Moreover, each university or college is mandated to identify a field of specialization that is defined in its charter, its capability to implement well taking into account its available resources, and the educational opportunities in other SUCs and private education institutions in the area. Answering the call, the Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS), forerunner of the Department of Education (DepEd), organized two training programs on institutional development planning in collaboration with the Development Academy of the Philippines and the Philippine Association of State Colleges and Universities.
The Congressional Commission on Education (EDCOM) study of 1992 found that the quality of Philippine education was declining continuously. As a result, the EDCOM recommended the restructuring of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports into three agencies, namely: the Commission on Higher Education, which oversees tertiary education, the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority, which is responsible for short-term manpower skills training, and the Department of Education, Culture and Sports, which was renamed as the Department of Education (DepEd), which will take charge of kindergarten, elementary, and secondary education.
The Commission on Higher Education came up with its first Long-Term Higher Education Development Plan (1996-2005). The plan served as the blueprint of change, reform and innovation in higher education. Subsequently, the Commission required all SUCs and CHED-supervised higher education institutions in the country to formulate and submit their respective ten-year development plan. In the private sector, the preparation of a long-term plan is a requirement for the grant of permit to operate a college or university.
LESSON 2
PLANNING THEORIES, CONCEPTS, AND RATIONALE
Planning Theories
The last five decades following the 1960s saw the unprecedented growth of planning in both the developed and Third World countries. Planning has become an ubiquitous activity engaged in by organizations and individuals everywhere.
There are four major planning theories. These are: (a) philosophical synthesis; (b) rationalism; (c) organizational development; and (d) empiricism (Miclat, 2005 citing Adams, 1991).
Philosophical Synthesis
This theory emphasizes a holistic approach to planning which includes information on social, economic, political, cultural and ethical conditions as well as the environmental background of the institution or organization for which planning will be undertaken.
Rationalism
Rationalism looks at people as a utility. Rational planning models follow a sequential, observable cycle that includes setting of goals, determining objectives, preparing plans, implementing the plans, and reviewing or evaluating results.
Organizational development
A planning approach that focuses primarily on ways to achieve organizational change. The organizational development approach includes a human relations approach to innovation and change in management style, employee satisfaction, decision-making processes, and the general health of the organization.
Empiricism
Empiricism is a planning theory that acknowledges the importance of studies on system behavior by social scientists concerned with planning theory. Empiricism is less normative, less concerned with planned social change, and uses a positivistic analytical framework.
Planning Concepts
Planning
The concept of planning emerged out of the development efforts and experiences of Third World countries when they adopted planning as the major instrument in the pursuit of their economic and social development. Development planning is principally an act of deciding ahead of time the what, the how, the when, and the who of identifying and determining development goals, policies and plans; and serious setting of alternative courses of action, procedures and strategies needed to achieve the purposes of government institutions (NEDA, 1985). In the crafting of development plans, socio-economic and political development programs are treated separately but are integrated within the purview of national aspirations, policies and goals.
Strategic Planning
Strategic planning is also viewed as focusing in on decision-making, information, and the future. Its very essence or substance is concentrated on the consideration of current decision options based on available data and taken in the light of their possible effects and consequences over a period of time. In other words, strategic planning is concerned with identifying foreseeable thrusts and weaknesses to avoid and strengths and opportunities to pursue. Strategic planning is the effective application of the best alternative information to decisions that have to be made to ensure a secure future (Day, 1997).
From the point of view of education, strategic planning is considered as a set of purposeful actions that influence an organization in order to effect change. It is also regarded as a methodology aimed at future change of a present situation. It is viewed as long-term planning in order to achieve a desired vision for an organization or school. It defines the what’s to be achieved (Herman and Herman, 1994).
It is generally agreed by experts that an acceptable definition of planning should embody the following features, namely: (a) an external orientation; (b) a holistic systematic approach; (c) a process for formulating plans, objectives, strategies and programs; (d) use of systematic methods in the analysis of strategic situation and alternatives; (e) a commitment to action; and (f) a knowledge of results (Miclat, 2005).
Strategic Planning Rationale
Organizations need to plan far various reasons, namely:
§ To reorient the organization or institution to the needs of the community. Community includes the mega community (e.g. the Philippine, Ugandan or Bahraini society), the macro community (the educational system), and the micro community, which is the private or the public sector education system. The necessity of reorienting the institution to the needs of the community has been underscored by Onuskin (1993) when he commented that “In the majority of the institutions there is a … serious gap between their activities and the actual societal and economic needs of their countries.”
§ Another serious consideration is that when people plan for expansion, a certain level of minimum standard must be observed. This will guarantee a certain level of minimum quality performance. In a higher education institution, such standard must cover the physical plant, facilities, and faculty and staff. More significantly, it should include student qualification and performance, curriculum, methodology, evaluation procedures and financing arrangements. This standard can be achieved through surveys, studies, operations research, and cost-benefit analysis.
§ Effective strategic planning initiatives or efforts can make the organization a more responsive and viable instrument for socio-economic development of the nation. In the Philippines, the strategic development plans formulated and developed by the National Economic and Development Authority for the government becomes the major guideposts in identifying and determining priorities in every sector. For example, for the period 1993-1998 the program of the national government is concentrated on the improvement of the quality of life of the people. In the education sector, the primary objective is the delivery of quality education in all levels. Total human development and world competitiveness are the main strategies adopted to attain this objective.
§ There is a need to establish priorities because of dwindling resources for sectoral services. As could be inferred from the National and Regional Development Plans and Annual Investment Programs, there are many competing concerns which need government attention and support. There is therefore a need to prioritize programs and projects. Priority listing can be achieved by formulating a set of quantified criteria reached through consensus. Programs and projects can then be prioritized thereby assuring the rational allocation of scarce resources.