SUCCESS STORIES: BLACK WOMEN MANAGERS
IN SOUTH AFRICA (BEFORE 1990)
Overview and background to workshop led by
Truida Prekel, Management Consultant, Cape Town , South Africa
EWMD NETWORK Annual Conference, Philadelphia , June 8-11, 1995
In the past, many black women in South Africa often saw themselves as third- or even fourth-class citizens, and doubly disadvantaged because they were both black and women. Some people (probably not black women themselves) may say that they are now doubly privileged in times of affirmative action, more so as they can be double-counted if a quota system for the “disadvantaged” is instituted. Both these views would be an over-simplification:
* Even in the worst times, there were some black women who managed to turn the “double negative” into a positive factor, both in South Africa and in the United States (Fuchs-Epstein, 1973; Prekel, 1989). Because they were both black and women (and thus “twice-removed”), many white men in power positions probably felt less threatened by them than by either white women or black men. Thus some of them were “allowed” to get ahead quietly, earn the respect of their colleagues, and prove themselves and their abilities. However, there were also many thousands who never got that opportunity.
* Even if affirmative action were to be implemented fully, it will take many decades before the effects of centuries of discrimination against both women and people of colour are eliminated – effects on the individual herself, and on her colleagues, managers, subordinates. In fact, the very affirmative action intended to benefit the employee can become a problem: she may become complacent if she feels a sense of entitlement, or believes the system will work for her; or she may experience resistance, resentment or even sabotage from people who feel threatened by what they see as reverse discrimination.
You may ask why I, as a white woman, feel entitled to talk about black women managers. My interest dates back more than 15 years, when I noticed that a relatively high percentage of black women enrolled on the fundamental management programmes at the University of South Africa School of Business Leadership; and that they were usually among the best students. Through my research over the past 15 years and by arranging seminars to bring together black and white career women in times when such contact was still unusual, I have been privileged to get to know, and learn from, scores of black women who have been able to succeed in big business, in their own businesses, and sometimes in both simultaneously.
The focus in this discussion will be on women who succeeded in building their careers over the past 10 to 20 years, while discrimination in terms of both race and gender was still openly practised in South Africa. Insight into how these women made it should be of value to anyone, also to the younger generation of black women in South Africa, who are starting their careers with the benefits of better educational opportunities, an open society, and government and business pressure towards equal opportunities.
We shall first look briefly at trends regarding black women managers, then discuss their special strengths, and well as the special challenges they face. We shall conclude by taking a broader look, and considering a future perspective on black women managers.
WHERE BLACK WOMEN STAND TODAY : SOME MAJOR TRENDS
Successful black businesswomen fall into two main classes : managers and/or professionals in large firms, and owners or managers of small businesses. Own businesses can vary from fairly large self- or family-owned companies, to tiny “spaza” shops (usually in a room or a garage in their homes) and kerb-side food vendors in the informal sector. As it is impossible to get a handle on the latter, we shall first look at the managers, and then briefly at the more “formal” entrepreneurs.
Black women are the group, by race and by gender, that are moving upwards most rapidly on the occupational ladder, according to the South African national Manpower Surveys. Table 1 is based on Manpower Surveys 8, 13, 15 and 16, published by the Department of Manpower, and Manpower Surveys 17 and “1989” published by the Central Statistical Service. Analysed over a 20 year-period, the surveys show interesting trends in the advancement of women of all population groups, particularly black women. All women – and also men of colour – have increased their labour market participation (as a percentage of all people listed). Actual numbers are still small, but trends are promising. (See also Prekel, 1994.)
(The Manpower Surveys list all people employed in the Republic of South Africa, excluding domestic and agricultural workers. Workers in Namibia and in Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda and Ciskei were excluded when these states became independent. The statistics are not absolute as they are based on samples rather than on a total survey; small numbers of women in early years could cause distortions ; and many high-level black men and women included in earlier surveys were excluded from 1976 onwards as they left the country for political reasons, or as various states became “independent”. Large - and growing - numbers of black professionals, administrators and entrepreneurs live in Namibia or lived in states that were independent until 1994, and thousands of well educated black people have returned from exile since 1990. Thus actual numbers in and after 1983 would have been much higher if it were possible to add back these people.)
TABLE 1 SUMMARY OF WORKFORCE PARTICIPATION, ACCORDING TO MANPOWER SURVEYS 1969-1989, WITH REFERENCE TO TOTAL WOMEN AND BLACK WOMEN
YEAR 1969 1979 1983 1985 1987 1989 .
TOTAL WOMEN 666 O37 1 213 793 1 377 252 1 381 025 1 545 238 1 746 029
TOTAL MEN 3 219 882 045 253 4 121 397 3 982 763 4 178 317 4 321 081
TOTAL PEOPLE 3 885 919 5 259 046 5 495 649 5 363 788 5 723 554 6 067 110
IN SURVEY
TOTAL BLACK 159 842 375 951 487 986 497 985 555 828 686 663
WOMEN IN SURVEY
WOMEN AS % 17,1% 23,1% 25,1% 25,7% 27,0% 28,2%
OF TOTAL SURVEY
BLACK WOMEN 4,1% 7,1% 8,9% 9,3% 9,7% 11,3%
AS % OF TOTAL SURVEY
BLACK WOMEN 24,0% 31,0% 35,4% 36,1% 36,0% 39,3%
AS % OF WOMEN LISTED
Source: Manpower Surveys 1969-1989
A shift from traditional to non-traditional
Over the same period women of all race groups have increasingly moved from traditional into “new” careers. “Non-traditional” occupations are those previously virtually restricted to men, and where women are still in the minority. Women’s upward movement is mostly stronger in “non-traditional” occupations than in traditional “women’s jobs”. The numbers of women in professions such as medicine, pharmacy, accounting and engineering increased by a factor of between six and 30 over the 20-year period. Though small numbers in early years could exaggerate trends or cause distortions, the growth rates are remarkable. Other rapid growth areas included technicians, technologists, managers, administrators and supervisors. Many of these professions can also open doors to management positions or self-employment.
Women managers have, according to Erwee (1994), managed to climb the corporate ladder to some extent, despite the current focus on black male advancement. In 1992, women constituted 20% of all managerial, executive and administrative posts – up from 17,4% in 1985. White women make up 19% of white managers, coloured women 24% of all coloured managers; Asian women 14% of Asian managers; while 26 % of all black (African) managers are women. In 1985 only 16,5% of black managers were women – thus a dramatic growth.
Black women appear to be doing equally well as entrepreneurs. In a recent publication on Women Entrepreneurs in South Africa (Dictum, 1993), 87 leading women entrepreneurs were profiled. Of these, 10 (11,5%) are black, involved in retail, fashion design, transport, catering, consultancy and cosmetics. And they are, of course, just the tip of the iceberg of many thousands of women who have created jobs for themselves, and often also for others.
SPECIAL CHALLENGES AT WORK, AT HOME AND IN THE COMMUNITY
Black women are of course exposed to the problems that most working women of all races face. These may include internal problems such as lack of self-esteem and assertiveness, possible lack of appropriate qualifications and experience, and role-conflict as workers/wives/ mothers; as well as a host of external problems such as stereotyping, prejudice, lack of support, and the so-called Glass Ceiling. (Morrison et al, 1992.)
There is also a danger that a black woman may develop a “minority mentality” (see Prekel, 1987). If she is over-aware of the fact that she is different from most of her colleagues, and over-keen to prove herself and her abilities, she may become hyper-sensitive to criticism, and less assertive. Sometimes women (and other “minorities”) see-saw between “withdrawal due to rejection” and “trying too hard for acceptance” – both of which harm their relations with colleagues. The main danger is a victim mentality, leading the individual to blame all career obstacles or disappointments on the fact that she (or he) is different from most colleagues.
In preparing this paper I sent questionnaires to 20 successful African black women managers who have worked in South Africa in recent years, and were in management positions before 1990, when political change became clear. I also analysed profiles and interviews with black women managers in a variety of magazines, to identify key obstacles and success factors.
The spontaneous responses to the open-ended questions, the attributes that emerged from the profiles and my personal experience of working with (and sometimes mentoring) several of these women, strongly reinforced previous findings. We shall first discuss strengths and obstacles as they relate to black women managers who responded to the survey, and then give some background on the situation of black working women in general.
A SURVEY AMONG BLACK WOMEN MANAGERS
Questionnaires were sent to a convenience sample of 20 black women managers in the Pretoria-Johannesburg area (where 60 to 70% of business activity in South Africa occurs.)
Sixteen questionnaires were returned.
A profile of the respondents
Age
The average age was 45 years, with 14 respondents ranging between 36 and 49, and two women being 57 and 68. Years of work experience ranged between 10 and 38.
Marital status Married Divorced Widowed Single .
Respondents 8 4 2 2
Number of children 4 3 2 1 .
Respondents 1 6 8 1
Education
All respondents have tertiary education. Two have post-high school diplomas, and all others have university degrees. Two have BHons degrees, six masters’ degrees, and one a doctorate.
The majority of them studied in the social sciences, nursing or education, but complemented their formal education with studies in marketing and business.
Employment
Three are self-employed. The other 13 work for a range of organisations, including a power utility, banks, insurance and mining companies, and Coca Cola.
Career-related strengths
Respondents were asked what they regarded as their most important career-related strengths.
The responses are listed in order of frequency, which is indicated in brackets.
Assertiveness (12)
Professionalism, concern for excellence ( 9)
Interpersonal and facilitation skills ( 8)
Sense of self, self-esteem and confidence ( 7)
Expertise and experience ( 6)
Honesty, integrity and outspokenness ( 6)
Dedication and commitment ( 6)
Qualifications and job-related skills ( 6)
Ability to relate to people at all levels ( 6)
Ability to develop self and others ( 6)
Awareness of trends, future-mindedness, open-mindedness ( 6)
Hard-working, doing more than expected ( 5)
Flexibility and adaptability ( 5)
Team spirit, leadership, supporting and valuing others ( 5)
Persistence, perseverance and drive ( 5)
Self-management and life skills ( 5)
Decisiveness and determination ( 4)
Resilience ( 4)
Other attributes mentioned included change management abilities, inter-cultural skills, willingness to take on a challenge or a fight, initiative, motivation and a positive attitude, strategic thinking abilities, searching for solutions, organisation skills, a sense of humour, self-presentation, willingness to help others and share skills, but also to ask help when needed, networking ability, keeping abreast of their field, curiosity, and taking responsibility. Three attributes mentioned probably specifically relevant to their situation as black women in South Africa are humility, extraordinary patience, and the ability to “start with nothing”.
Obstacles experienced by respondents
Respondents were asked (again open-ended questions) what obstacles they had faced in their careers in the past, faced at present, and what obstacles they expected to face in future. Responses are again listed in order of frequency.
Obstacles faced in the past
Prejudice against women (15)
Prejudice in terms of race (11)
Lack of recognition : income and promotion ( 5)
Lack of scope, tokenism, last in line for opportunity ( 5)
Tradition: Whites not accepting black woman’s contribution ( 5)
Integration of work, family, studies ( 2)
Political tensions, unpredictable environment ( 2)
Lack of support and mentors in own company ( 2).
Other points mentioned included the need for black women to work extra hard, lack of acceptance in a male-dominated society, being too self-critical, shyness learnt in their own culture, and problems with access to finance for studying or to start a business.
Obstacles still faced at present
Inability / reluctance of organisations to change,
Autocratic WASP male culture remains ( 8)
Recognition, access to responsible jobs still slow ( 6)
Danger of window-dressing, tokenism ( 5)
Lack of broad-based knowledge, need for development ( 4)
Discrimination against women remains ( 3)
Men reluctant to take directives from women ( 2)
Uncertainty about HRD within, or future of own organisation ( 2).
Other points included limited time for self-development, excessive work load, and jealousy and resistance in own family.
Obstacles expected in the future
“My own age” (from respondents aged 68, 57, 39 and 36) ( 4)
(One mentioned that most job ads specified “25 to 35”)
Resistance from older white peers to Affirmative Action ( 2).
Others mentioned include: down-sizing of organisations, the challenge of having to turn things around and help the economy to grow, men still dominating even with affirmative action, women still not having an adequate voice, and limited qualifications.
In considering the responses in the survey, it is striking that, despite a history of Apartheid as well as suppression in their own male-dominated culture, the successful black women are assertive, confident and self-motivated, and are aware both of their strengths and of what they need to get ahead. These strengths also coincide to a large extent with the success secrets of top-level women executives in the United States described in Breaking the Class Ceiling (Morrison, 1992), summarised here for convenience.