Social Cognitive Theory

Bandura, 1986

4 Parts:

1. Self-Regulation & Risk Reduction

2. Of course, must have Information (give facts)

3. Must and Practice to build skills

4. Must create Environment of Support

Theory of Planned Behavior

Azjen, 1988

Comes out of theory of reasoned action (intention best predictor of behavior).

But people change their minds, so Behavioral expectations from intention predict better.

Theory of Reasoned Action

Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975

· A cognitive model.

· Intention to perform behavior is a function of personal attitude vs. social norms.

· Attitude predicted by outcome beliefs

Information-Motivation-Behavioral Skills Model. (“IMB”)

Fisher and Fisher, 1992

HIV Prevention requires all 3 elements:

1. Prevention Info (how to…)

2. Prevention Motivation (why to…)

3. Prevention Behavioral Skills (practice skills…)

ARRM: AIDS Risk Reduction Model

Cattania et al., 1990
3 Stages:

Labeling (understand what and why)
Influences: knowledge, belief in susceptibility, belief that having AIDS is bad, social norms.
Commitment
Influences: effect on pleasure, perceived efficacy, social factors, self efficacy.
Enactment
Includes: Info seeking, Obtaining remedies, enacting solutions.
Influences: social networks, problem solving skills, partner issues

Health Belief Model

1950’s, Hochbaum et alia

Perceptions are key:

1. Percieved susceptibility

2. Percieved severity

3. Perceived benefits

4. Perceived Barriers

Modified by

1. Demographic/sociopsychological variables

2. Perceived Threat

3. Cues to action

DOUG KIRBY

Characteristics of effective Teen Preg Prev:

1. Reducing sexual behaviors that lead to Preg/STI

2. Based in theory

3. Consistent and clear messages (abs and cond.)

4. Basic, accurate info

5. Addresses social pressures

6. Practicing refusal skills

7. Involve students and personalize activities

8. Age, experience, and culturally appropriate

9. Sufficient time for learning

10. Teachers/Leaders who believe in program

ANKE EHRHARDT

Wide range of studies:

1. Determinants of sexual risk behaviors

2. Comprehensive approaches to STI prevention

3. Sexual and Gender Development

Worked with J. Money.

CAROLE VANCE

PEGGY BRICK

PP of N. NJ

Author/Educator

Also, I think, at SIECUS.

Lots of books

Unequal Partners, Positive Images, Teaching Safer Sex, etc. “New Expectations: Later Life”

MARY CALDERONE

· PPFA Medical Director

(allowed clinical testing of BC techniques)

· Encouraged study of family planning in Med schools

· Co-Founded SIECUS

· Books on education of FP and BC

· “Sex is what you do, Sexuality is who you are”

· Parents as primary sex educators of kids

· Dissemination of BC info should be common in med practice

SOL GORDON

· Author “how can you tell if you’re really in love”

· Author “Raising a child responsibly in a sexually permissive world”

· Former director of Inst for Family Research and Education at Syracuse

· Died 2008

LEONORE TIEFER

· Against the concept of “FSD” because

o It emphasizes physiology and performsnce

o Ignores/minimizes psychosocial aspects

o Reinforces narrow definitions of sexuality and ignores women’s complex sexualities

o Discourages/discredits styles of sexuality that don’t focus on genital arousal and orgasm

o Causes insurance companies to ignore counseling

o Causes media and medicine to ignore social factors

GREGORY HEREK

· Author on homophobia, anti-gay violence, AIDS stigma.

· Worked with APA on amicus briefs (Lawerence, Bowers, Boyscouts v. Dale, Watkins v. US)

· Made Internalized Homophobia Scale

· Gay/Bi person self-esteem scale

· Studies and differentiates between Gay/Lesbian, but doesn’t do that enough with Bi.

JOHN “YOU’RE SO AND YOU DON’T EVEN KNOW IT” MONEY.

· Coined “Gender Role”, “Gender Identity”, “paraphilia”

· Distinguished between sex and gender.

· Helped develop SSSS

· Theory of sexual development emphasizing interaction of bio-psych-soc.

· Started strong on Nurture, then change to interdependent.

· Est. Johns Hopkins gender ID clinic, which started doing SRS in 1966.

MARGARET SANGER

· Nurse

· Convicted under Comstock Act in New Haven

· Founded BC fed of America—later became PPFA

· Coined term BC.

· Helped find $ for research into hormonal BC, leading to BC pill.

· Eugenicist.

ALFRED KINSEY

· SB in Human Male (1948) with Pomeroy and Martin

· SB in Human Female (1958)

· Started study of sex behavior at UI in 1938

· Founds Inst for Sex Research at UI in 1947

· Research based on >12,000 non-random personal interviews.

· Revealed incidence of premarital sex, extra-marital sex

· Sexual capacities of fem., and homosexual behavior research led to condemnation and loss of funding

PHYLLIS SCHLAFLY

· Conservative leader.

· “Pro family movement”

· Helped defeat ERA

· Attorney, Author (20+ books), Radio commentator

LAURA SCHLESSINGER

· PhD. In Physiology from Columbia.

· LMF and Child counselor formerly in private practice.

· Radio personality

· Author of advice columns.

· Morals and Ethics (legalistic) basis.

· Key player in Rind et al. disaster.

HAVELOCK ELLIS

· Early guy.

· Studies in Psychology of Sex (1900)

o Multiple volumes

o Banned in England

· 1927 co-pres with Hirschfeld of World League for Sexual Reform

SANDRA BEM

Wants so many categories that they lose meaning.

· Gender Schema Theory

o cognitive-developmental elements

o social-learning elements

o Sex typing comes from childs cognitive processing, but derived from cultural gender typing.

o Sex typing is therefore learned, and therefore not inevitable or unchangeable.

o However, schema are anticipatory—i.e. they look for new info to support themselves.

o Perceptions are based on incoming info PLUS anticipation based on existing schema.

o Wanted to turn the volume up on gender categorization

WILLIAM MASTERS and VIRGINIA JOHNSON

· Sexual response cycle

o Arousal/Excitement

o Plateau

o Orgasm

o Resolution

· Male-based model, did not include cyclic, multi-orgasmic, or non-goal oriented models of sexual response.

· 1960’s

· First to scientifically study sexual response

· First scientific lab studies of sexuality.

HELEN SINGER KAPLAN

· Feminist answer to Masters and Johnson

· Sexual response/arousal CYCLE

· Introduced DESIRE into M&J model

· M&J assume desire. Kaplan says desire can come after excitement.

· Wrote about desire dysfunction.

SIMON LEVAY

· Based in biology/neurology/endocrinology

· Famous Twins Study

· Parts of brains that are generally smaller in women are also often smaller in gay men.

· Parts of brain that are generally larger in women are often larger in gay men. Lesbians not tested.

· Confounds:

o All gay men died from AIDS

o Small N

o All others “assumed” to be hetero.

SAMPLING ERROR and THREATS

(aka STANDARD ERROR)

· The degree to which the MEAN and VARIANCE of the SAMPLE do NOT reflect those of the POPULATION.

· This is all about statistical problems with the sample that come from it BEING a sample.

· Sample Size usually = ¯ Sampling Error

· SD in POPULATION= Sampling Error

SCALES OF MEASUREMENT

· Nominal

· Ordinal (Likert is really this)

· Interval (Likert is generally used like this)

· Ratio/Scale (has absolute Zero)

TESTS OF STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE

· T-Test

· Chi-Square

P Does 1 Nominal Variable correlate with 2 (Nominal or higher) groups?

· ANOVA

P Of Variance

P F-Score: 3+ groups, with one independent.

· ANCOVA

P Of Covariance

P Determines effect of independent variable, rather than just correlation.

· MANOVA

P Multivariate ANOVA

P Multiple groups, multiple independents

· MANCOVA (MULTIPLE ANCOVA)

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM

· Reality is socially constructed

· Based in common experience, habituated, shared, institutionalized

· Codified through common language

· Constructed at the societal level, and/or in subgroups.

· Attraction: societal standards of beauty, age, virginity, affection, compassion, etc.

· Philosophically Flexible—accepts diversity, cross-cultural variation, etc.

ESSENTIALISM

· Classical – Plato (philosophical)

· Modern – (applied as) biological determinism

· Cultural – “Men and women are fundamentally different from each other”

· Some Feminisms are essentialist. Celebrating the feminine assumes that there is such a thing.

· Claims like evolution and natural selection are based in Modern Essentialism.

MICHAEL BAILEY

· With Pillard, roughly half of monozygotics had gay sib. That’s roughly double the rate of dizygotics.

ESSENTIALISM AND ORIENTATION

· Xg28 is a chromosome found in some gay ♂.

· Het♂ brains generally bigger, G♂ brain smaller, like women.

· Part of brain larger in ♀ is also larger in some G♂

· Daughters of ♀ who took DES, many ID as Lesbian

· 1/3 of ♀ with CAH as child ID as lesbian as adults.

· Roughly half of monozygotics had gay sib. That’s roughly double the rate of dizygotics.

SYSTEMIC RANDOM SAMPLING

· Select N-th person until desired sample size is reached.

STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

· Divide population based on a characteristic (e.g. ♂♀)

· Random sample N people in each group.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING

· Umbrella term for all “unbiased” or “controlled bias” sampling techniques.

· Every case has an equal chance of being selected

· Includes:

o Simple Random Sampling

o Systemic Random (N-th number)

o Stratified Random (random from each pre-defined group)

SNOWBALL SAMPLING

· Not as dirty as it sounds.

· Unusual populations

· Each participant refers other participants from that unusual population.

THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY

(i.e. threats from procedures or participant experiences)

· History

· Regression

· Maturation

· Test Sensitivity (pre/post)

· Instrumentation

· Mortality

HISTORY THREAT to validity

· Outside events, like Tax Day, a War, or Changing jobs that affect outcomes

· May be limited by making the experiment shorter, or having less time to return a survey.

REGRESSION THREAT to validity

· Between pre and post, outliers tend to drift toward mean.

· Solved by tossing outliers, or better yet, having a control group. (It will happen with them, too)

MATURATION THREAT to validity

· When participants actually “mature” (i.e. change or develop) in ways that are unrelated to the experiment, but affect the results.

· Controlled by having shorter time experiments or having populations in control and experimental groups that mature at the same rate.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

· Umbrella term for non-random sampling

o Quota Sampling

o Purposive Sampling

o Convenience Sampling

o Snowball Sampling

INTERNAL VALIDITY

(Confidence)

The degree to which we can be confident that the observed results are the result of the independent variable, rather than to other stuff.

EXTERNAL VALIDITY

(Generalizability)

The degree to which we can be confident that the observed results are generalizable OUTSIDE of the research setting.

THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY

· Research Setting (it’s not the real world)

· Non-random sample

· Research procedures (artificial, not like the real world. Some people test well, but don’t perform well.)

· Interaction Threat (‘demographics’ of sample)

SETTING THREAT to EXTERNAL VALIDITY

Stuff that tests one way in Texas might not test that way in Massachussetts. Private school v. public school. Jail v. not Jail. Lab v. Real World.

INTERACTION (of selection and treatment) THREAT TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY

Just because straight white Christian men responded positively to an intervention doesn’t mean that gay black atheist women will too.

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

Truest random sampling.

Often uses a random numbers table.

CONTENT VALIDITY

CONSTRUCT VALIDITY

· Does the instrument measure only what it claims to measure? (Are they the right questions?)

· Does it FULLY measure it? (Are there questions that should have been there that were not?)

CONVERGENT VALIDITY

· Predictable relationship between variables and scale.

· Often tested by comparing results to similar scales.

· Sometimes tested by comparing “known” traits to measured traits. (e.g. if I’m gay, the instrument should tell me that I’m gay.)

CONCLUSION VALIDITY

The degree to which conclusions are related to data, and not other assumptions or inferences.

DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY

· Predictable lack of relationship between variables.

· If I’m NOT gay, the gay-predicting instrument should say that definitively.

FACE VALIDITY

mmmmmm….yeah, that looks about right…

TEST BIAS

· Age-inappropriate language

· Pencil & Paper with low literacy Pop

· Culturally skewed language or concepts. i.e. “Fats Waller” reference vs. “Winston Churchill” reference.

RELIABILITY

· Test-Retest (over time)

· Inter-rater (different ways of evaluating)

· Test Stability (did the ink-blots smear?!)

INTERNAL RELIABILITY

· Chronbach’s Alpha: Measures inter-item reliability

· Using 2 tests that are designed to measure the same thing can show internal reliability.

SELECTION THREAT to INTERNAL VALIDITY

· Non-random assignment to experimental and control groups.

· Use of pre-existing groups is an easy way to make this mistake. E.g. Don’s class vs. Brent’s class.

T-TEST

· Used when comparing two groups (means) on one criterion.

· 2 x 1 test

· E.g. Average age of men in sample v. Average age of women in sample?

· How similar are they?

· Does this grouping make a difference?

· When I compare the mean of the criterion variable in group one to the same thing in group two, are they significantly different?

· “T=#”

ANOVA

· 3 x 1 or more

· 3 or more groups, one criterion

· Does the mean of the criterion vary depending on which group we’re looking at?

· “F=#”

MANOVA

Same deal.

· 2+ variables x 2+ variables

· Do the mean of each variable in each group vary depending on the group? Or is this variable stable across groups?

ANCOVA

ANOVA, but controls for covariance

MANCOVA

ANCOVA with multiple dependents.

SIGNIFICANCE

· “Alpha Level” is the level at which we decide a result is to be called “significant”.

· Maybe < 0.10, usually <0.05, often <0.01

· This is the likelihood that these results happened by chance.

· Includes

o T-Test

o ANOVA, MANOVA

o ANCOVA, MANCOVA

Z – SCORE

(Standard Score)

· This is a standardized score, in terms of standard error.

· Scores are intentionally skewed and scaled so that the Mean = 0 and the SD = 1