Raphael, School of Athens
Michelangelo
David – Most unreligious religious statue by Michelangelo
Leonardo da Vinci
Petrarch – "Father of humanism / encouraged learning Greek and education should also include how to communicate knowledge and use it for public good (Ciceronan values)
Johann Gutenberg – introduced modern book printing
Pico della Mirandola, Oration on the Dignity of Man – "We have made you a creature you may, as the free and proud shaper of your own being, fashion yourself in the form you may prefer"
Machiavelli, The Princei – book: Where his name means deceit / Machiavellian = unscrupulous Politian
Erasmus – Credited for making Renaissance humanisn an international movement
Shakespeare – Wrote intensely human plays
Martin Luther – Protestant reformer (criticized the church and indulgences)
Johann Tetzel – a Dominican Friar who was attacked by Luther for selling Indulgences
95 Theses – 95 propositions that challenged the practice of selling indulgences
Pope Leo X – last non-priest to be elected pope and challenged Luther's 95 theses'
Henry VIII (P)
Edward VI (P)
Mary I (C)
Elizabeth I (P)
Ignatius Loyola, Society of Jesus – Jesuit founder and jesuits
Thomas More, Utopia – book: one of the most original works of the entire Renaissance / ELIMINATION OF PRIVATE PROPERTY
John Calvin
Predestination – God already knows!
Council of Trent – Ecumenical
Peace of Augsburg
Chapter 10 Intellectual Transformation
Copernicus – book: On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres: marks the beginning of modern astronomy.
Francis Bacon – book: Advancement in learning: Father of empiricism / developed the scientific method.
Kepler – Developed the laws of planetary motion.
Galileo – book: The Starry Messenger: asserted the uniformity of nature and physics. (the church condemns his teachings and places him under house arrest)
Newton – book: Principia Mathematica: Marked the climax of scientific revolution / developed calculus / Newton's law of motion / His discovery of the composition of light laid the foundation for optics
Thomas Hobbes – book: Leviathan: thought that absolutism was the most desirable and logical from of government / Only absolute rule could provide an environment secure enough for people to pursue their individual interests.
Voltaire – Letters: Letters concerning the English Nation: reforming society through the advancement of reason and the promotion of science and technology.
Montesquieu – book: Spirit of Laws: to found a science of society based on the mode of natural science.
Diderot – Edited the Encyclopedia
J.J. Rousseau – "Man is born free and everywhere he is in chains": The social contract: He sought to recreate the community spirit and the political freedom that characterized the Greek city-state.
Epistemology - a branch of philosophy that investigates the origin, nature, methods, and limits of human knowledge.
C Beccaria – book: On Crimes and Punishments (1764), which condemned torture and the death penalty, and was a founding work in the field of penology.
Adam Smith – books: The Theory of Moral Sentiments and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations / father of modern economics and capitalism
Rene Descartes – Father of modern philosophy and developer of geometry
Philosophes – French thinkers: This group was a heterogenous mix of people who pursued a variety of intellectual interests: scientific, mechanical, literary, philosophical, and sociological
Deism - the standpoint that reason and observation of the natural world, without the need for organized religion, can determine that the universe is a creation and has a creator
Laissez-Faire - an environment in which transactions between private parties are free from state intervention, including restrictive regulations, taxes, tariffs and enforced monopolies.
Frederick II the Great of Prussia – (King of Prussia Frederick IV) a brilliant military campaigner who, in a series of diplomatic stratagems and wars against Austria and other powers, greatly enlarged Prussia’s territories and made Prussia the foremost military power in Europe
Maria Theresa of Austria - was the only female ruler of the Habsburg dominions and the last of the House of Habsburg. She was the sovereign of Austria, Hungary, Croatia, Bohemia, Mantua, Milan, Lodomeria and Galicia, the Austrian Netherlands and Parma. By marriage, she was Duchess of Lorraine
Seven Years’ War - a global military conflict between 1756 and 1763, involving most of the great powers of the time affecting North and Central America, Europe, the West African coast, India and the Philippines
American Revolution - the political upheaval during the last half of the 18th century in which thirteen colonies in North America joined together to break free from the British Empire, combining to become the United States of America
Chapter 11 Era of the French Revolution
Ancien Regime - Political and social system of France prior to the French Revolution. Under the regime, everyone was a subject of the king of France as well as a member of an estate and province. All rights and status flowed from the social institutions, divided into three orders: clergy, nobility, and others (the Third Estate
Nobles of the Sword - This class was heir to a militaristic ideology of professional chivalry
Nobles of the Robe - French aristocrats who owed their rank to judicial or administrative posts — often bought outright for high sums (most inherited their positions)
Bourgeoisie – the social order that is dominated by the so-called middle class. In social and political theory, the notion of the bourgeoisie was largely a construct of Karl Marx (1818–83) and of those who were influenced by him
Estates General - the representative assembly of the three “estates,” or orders of the realm (clergy, nobles, everyone else)
Louis XV - king of France from 1715 to 1774, whose ineffectual rule contributed to the decline of royal authority that led to the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789.
Louis XVI - the last king of France (1774–92) in the line of Bourbon monarchs preceding the French Revolution of 1789 (terrible king)
Marie Antoinette - queen consort of King Louis XVI of France (1774–93). Imprudent and an enemy of reform, she helped provoke the popular unrest that led to the French Revolution and to the overthrow of the monarchy in August 1792.
Bastille – Medieval fortress in Paris that became a symbol of despotism
June 14, 1789 – Storming of Bastille
Great Fear - a period of panic and riot by peasants and others amid rumours of an “aristocratic conspiracy” by the king and the privileged to overthrow the Third Estate
Civil Constitution of the Clergy - during the French Revolution, an attempt to reorganize the Roman Catholic Church in France on a national basis
August 4, 1789 - the National Constituent Assembly abolished feudalism in what is known as the August Decrees
Women’s March (Oct. 1789) - one of the earliest and most significant events of the French Revolution
Constitution of 1791 - French constitution created by the National Assembly during the French Revolution. It retained the monarchy, but sovereignty effectively resided in the Legislative Assembly, which was elected by a system of indirect voting
Declaration of the Rights of Man & Citizen - a fundamental document of the French Revolution, defining the individual and collective rights of all the estates of the realm as universal
Sans Culottes - were the radical militants of the lower classes, typically urban laborers
Emigres - literally refers to a person who has "migrated out," but often carries a connotation of politico-social self-exile
Brunswick Manifesto - The Brunswick Manifesto threatened that if the French royal family were harmed, then French civilians would be harmed
Jacobin - a member of the Jacobin Club (1789–1794). The Jacobin Club was the most famous political club of the French Revolution
Girondin - a political faction in France within the Legislative Assembly and the National Convention during the French Revolution
Vendee - a Royalist rebellion and counterrevolution in the Vendée region of France during the French Revolution
Robespierre - is one of the best-known and most influential figures of the French Revolution. He largely dominated the Committee of Public Safety and was instrumental in the period of the Revolution commonly known as the Reign of Terror, which ended with his arrest and execution in 1794.
Thermidorian Reaction - a revolt in the French Revolution against the excesses of the Reign of Terror
Directory - was a body of five Directors that held executive power in France following the Convention and preceding the Consulate
Napoleon Bonaparte - a French military and political leader during the latter stages of the French Revolution
Concordat - an agreement between the Holy See of the Catholic Church and a sovereign state on religious matters
Plebiscite - a vote by the people of an entire country or district to decide on some issue, such as choice of a ruler or government, option for independence or annexation by another power, or a question of national policy
Trafalgar - a sea battle fought between the British Royal Navy and the combined fleets of the French Navy and Spanish Navy, during the War of the Third Coalition (August–December 1805) of the Napoleonic Wars
Continental System - the foreign policy of Napoleon I of France in his struggle against the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland during the Napoleonic Wars
Battle of Nations at Leipzig - fought by the coalition armies of Russia, Prussia, Austria and Sweden against the French army of Napoleon Bonaparte
Elba - Napoleon Bonaparte was exiled by the Allied governments to Elba following his abdication at Fontainebleau
Duke of Wellington - an Anglo-Irish[1] soldier and statesman, and one of the leading military and political figures of the 19th century
Tsar Alexander I - served as Emperor of Russia from 23 March 1801 to 1 December 1825 and the first Russian King of Poland from 1815 to 1825
Waterloo - An Imperial French army under the command of Emperor Napoleon was defeated by combined armies of the Seventh Coalition, an Anglo-Allied army under the command of the Duke of Wellington combined with a Prussian army
Chapter 12 Industrial Revolution
Hargreaves – 1764: British Carpenter who invented an improved spinning jenny (a hand-powered multiple spinning machine that was the first machine to improve upon the spinning wheel)
James Watt – 1769: Invented the modern steam engine
Bessemer – 1856: developed a process for converting pig iron into steel by speedily removing the impurities in the iron
Cartwright – 1785: Developed the power loom
Reform Bill of 1832 – expands British voting rights
Corn Laws - import tariffs designed to protect corn (grain) prices in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland against competition from less expensive foreign imports
Chartist Movement – first mass working class labor movement in the world / movement for political and social reform in the UK
Malthus – DOOMSDAY PROPHET
Ricardo – credited with systematizing economics, was one of the most influential of the classical economists
Saint-Simon – French Socialist theorist whose thoughts influenced Marxism, Positivism, and the discipline of sociology
Fourier - French mathematician and physicist best known for initiating the investigation of Fourier series and their applications to problems of heat transfer and vibrations / greenhouse effect
Owen – 1799: became part owner and manager of the New Lanark cotton mills in Scotland (he wanted to prove it was possible to improve the lives of his workers without reducing profit)
Utopian Socialists – first currents of modern socialist thought based on idealism instead of materialism
Chapter 13 Thought and Culture in the Early 19th Century
Romanticism - a revolt against aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment and a reaction against the scientific rationalization of nature
William Blake – Poet and artist of the Romantic Age. (The whirlwind of lovers) – rejected artistic conventions of the past
Byron – British poet who was a leading figure in romanticism
Kant – German philosopher: Critique of Pure Reason- rescuing reason and science
Hegel – One of the creators of German Idealism (Marxism) – tried to grasp the wholeness of life
Edmund Burke – became a leading figure in the Whig party: Reflections on the Revolution in France
John Stuart Mill - his conception of liberty justified the freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited state control
De la Croix – Romantic artist who shaped the work of the Impressionists, while his passion for the exotic inspired the artists of the Symbolist movement
Nationalism - a political ideology that involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a political entity defined in national terms
Chapter 14 Surge of Liberalism and Nationalism
Congress of Vienna – Jean Baptiste Isabey: The delegates to the Congress of Vienna sought to reestablish many features of Europe that had existed before the French Revolution and Napoleon - blahblahblah
Metternich - one of the most important diplomats of his era. He served as the Foreign Minister of the Holy Roman Empire and its successor state, the Austrian Empire, from 1809 until the liberal revolutions of 1848 forced his resignation
Castlereagh - an Irish and British statesman. As British Foreign Secretary, from 1812 he was central to the management of the coalition that defeated Napoléon and was the principal British diplomat at the Congress of Vienna / leader of British house of Commons
Talleyrand – (French) remains a figure that polarizes opinion. Some regard him as one of the most versatile, skilled and influential diplomats in European history, and some believe that he was a traitor, betraying in turn, the Ancien Régime, the French Revolution, Napoleon, and the Restoration.
Louis XVIII - King of France and of Navarre from 1814 to 1824, omitting the Hundred Days in 1815. Louis XVIII spent twenty-three years in exile, from 1791 to 1814, during the French Revolution and the First French Empire, and again in 1815, for 100 days, upon the return of Napoleon from Elba. While in exile, he lived in Prussia, the United Kingdom and Russia
Charles X - ruled first as the Comte d'Artois, then as King of France and of Navarre from 16 September 1824 until 2 August 1830 ( reign came to an end due to the July Revolution)
Louis Philipe, Duke of Orleans - French nobleman, a member of a cadet branch of the House of Bourbon, the dynasty then ruling France. The First Prince of the Blood after 1752, he was the most senior male at the French court after the immediate royal family
Carbonari - ("charcoal burners"[1]) were groups of secret revolutionary societies founded in early 19th-century Italy. Although their goals often had a patriotic and liberal focus, they lacked a clear political agenda
Mazzini - nicknamed "Soul of Italy,"[1] was an Italian politician, journalist and activist for the unification of Italy
Risorgimento - political and social movement that agglomerated different states of the Italian peninsula into the single state of Italy in the 19th century