Table 1. Regimes, Regime Change, and Developmental Change
Regimes / Regimes embody the norms and principles of the political organization of the state, which are set out in the rules and procedures within which governments operate.

Regime change

/ A regime change is a change of regime or a fundamental change in or abandonment of the principles and norms governing the nature of the regime, which must be distinguished from “a change within the regime” or a “regime weakening”
Developmental Change / A developmental change is a change within a political regime and might involve alterations of rules and decision-making procedures, but not of norms or principles. It occurs where the relationship between norms, principles, and rules becomes less coherent or where actual practice becomes inconsistent with the principles and values of the regime.
A change of government does not necessarily involve a change of regime, if governments formed within a particular regime are all essentially of the same character, to the extent that these governments share a commitment to the fundamental principles and norms of the regime. Rules and procedures, which can take various forms and are subject to change, derive from and are secondary to principles and norms.

Table 2. Systemic Change vs. Developmental Change

Genetic Change =Systemic Change / Developmental Change = System Revitalization
Ideological / 1. The regime declares abandonment of the official ideology
2. The regime does not claim to have an absolute and universal truth
3. The regime does not claim to have a long-term inevitable goal
4. The regime does not resort to political and ideological campaigns for its political purposes / 1. Ordinary people have more freedom, but only limited at the individual level
2. The regime is more tolerant towards religions, but in a very limited degree; and religious practice is strictly restricted by the party–state
3. The party still adheres to its ideological commitment while its true believers become fewer
4. Communist morality is still a whip over society while party ability to control private beliefs and morality is weakening
Political / 1. The CCP abandons its leading core and vanguard status on behalf of all the working classes and the entire society
2. Political liberation is substantially effected
2. Genuine separation of party and state is substantially effected
4. The party no longer requires the state, society and individuals to be subjected to the party principles, norms, policy goals / 1. Party-state organization revitalization
2. Cadre system professionalization
3. Decision-making rationalization
4. The party-state power is streamlined and comparatively less pervasive in individuals’ daily life but retains the ability to intervene as it wishes
5. The CCP attempts to separate some fnuctions between the party and the state but continue to construct and remold government, regime, and state in its own ideology, principles, norms, images, and need


Table 2 (Continued)

Genetic Change =Systemic Change / Developmental Change = System Revitalization
Legal / 1. Government by the rule of law, rather than other supreme authorities
2. The party no longer stipulates its own principles, norms, rules in the constitution
3. The party rule no longer overrides laws of government
4. The legal system is not subjugated to the party / 1. The regime resorts more to the means of law to regulate economic activities and control social life
2. Some civil law practice is allowed, and ordinary people begin to turn to the legal system to resolve their business and civil disputes more often, though the results are not optimal
3. Rationalization of the legal system is more effected, with limited inclusion in the legislative process
Social / 1. The party makes a substantial retreat from both state and society and de-statization of society has made Chinese society become “civil”
2. Civil organizations are legally and practically permitted and independent civil organizations are allowed to challenge or check the government
3. Political liberalization is substantially effected to make civil/political rights protected and enhanced
4. Party-state establishment is dismantled and party domination of society is diminished / 1. Control over citizens’ daily life, economic activities, and social mobility is relaxed while control over political, cultural, and major economic areas are tightened
2. A system of state-licensed, officially controlled, or party-led professional and industrial organizations is established to supplement the party direct control through the various official “mass” organizations
3. Grassroots of government in urban and rural areas are restructured to correct the traditional dysfunctional controlling system
Economic / 1. Major economic activities are performed by private economic organizations, or substantial privatization programs are conducted
2. State socialism characterized by the administrative command system is transformed into an economic system primarily based on a free market and private enterprise system. / 1. Mixed economic elements with publicly owned economic organizations dominant in major economic activities
2. Marketization or economic liberalization
3. Limited and selected decentralization
4. A fledgling market within state socialism, with the administrative command system predominant and extensive government intervention everywhere in the economy

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Table 3. Ideological and political campaigns before and after 1979

Year / Campaigns / Targets / Characteristics
1950 – 1978 / land reform, suppression of counterrevolutionaries, three-anti campaign, five-anti campaign, thought reform of intellectuals, agricultural cooperatives, socialist reform of private enterprises, anti-rightist, party rectification, great leap forward, people’s communes, four cleanups, socialist education, cultural revolution / Landowners, rich peasants, counterrevolutionaries, former employees of the Nationalist government, former businessmen, former members of “democratic parties,” intellectuals, cadres, “rightists,” “capitalist-road-takers,” and anyone suspected of disloyalty or opposition to Mao Zedong / High intensity, high penetration, on a nationwide scale, rely upon mass terror. In each of these campaigns, there were certain groups or classes designated to be the target of struggle
1980 – 1997 / four major anti-spiritual-pollution and anti-bourgeois campaigns, party rectification, constant socialist spiritual civilization movement, periodic crack-down on illegal publications, etc. / Intellectuals, dissidents, journalists, cadres, and anyone advocating “bourgeois liberalization” or espousing “Westernization” / Low intensity, low penetration, on a nationwide scale, rely upon state terror. In each of these campaigns, there are many target individuals to be persecuted, arrested, or purged
Table 4. CCP under Mao’s Regime and under Post-Mao Regime
Under Mao’s Regime / Under Post-Mao Regime
Power / Monopolistic, Personalistic, and Monolithic (Democratic Centralism) / Monopolistic, Oligarchic, and Monolithic (Democratic Centralism)
Ideology / Strong commitment, Exclusive, Compulsory, and Coherent, / Strong commitment, Exclusive, Compulsory, and Less coherent
Goal / Twin-goal: Communism and Industrialization / Twin-goal: Communism and Modernization
Means / Mass mobilization and universal participation of all societal beings in the political system via constant and direct mass political campaigns or “mass democracy” manipulated for carrying out political objectives / Bureaucratic rationalization, combined with limited mass mobilization and participation in the political system via party-controlled mass organizations, political institutions, and state-licensed or controlled social organizations
Leadership / Infallible charisma (Mao) / Infallible charisma (Deng)
Membership / Elitist vanguard / Elitist vanguard
Legitimacy sources / Communist revolution and Marxist-Leninist-Maoist ideology / Communist revolution and Marxist-Leninist-Maoist-Dengist ideology
Table 5. Party-State Relationship under Mao’s Regime and under post-Mao Regime
Mao’s Regime / Post-Mao Regime
Government/ regime/ state / The distinction between the three is blurred and fused through the CCP. The CCP constructs and molds government, regime, and state in its own ideology, principles, norms, rules, image and need. / Unaltered
Party-state apparatus / Party apparatus is hierarchically organized and either superior to or intertwined with the state apparatus. / Unaltered
State institutions / Fusion of powers of various state institutions through the CCP / Unaltered
Party dictatorship / CCP dictates politics, and party organizations dominate and penetrate every sector of the state / Unaltered

Table 6. China’s Lawmaking, 1949 – 1993

Year / Legislation by the NPC / Legislation by the State Council / Sub-total
1949-1965 / 122 / 1587 / 1709
1966-1978 / 7 / 217 / 224
1979-1993 / 210 / 1678 / 1888

Sources:

Chinese Law Almanac 1993 (Beijing: Chinese Law Almanac Press, 1994), pp. 47, 68

Chinese Law Almanac 1994 (Beijing: Chinese Law Almanac Press, 1995), pp. 47, 73

Report on Chinese Social Development 1994-1995 (Beijing: China People University Press, 1996), p. 50

Table 7. Four Broad Categories of Social Organizations in Post-Mao China

Four categories of social organizations / Autonomous / Voluntary / Spontaneous
The official mass organizations / No / No / No
The new semi-official social organizations / Yes, but limited / No / No
The new popular social organizations / Yes / Yes / Yes
The illegal organizations / Yes / Yes / Yes
Table 8. Comparison of Freedom under Mao’s Regime and under Post-Mao Regime

Freedom

/ Under Mao’s Regime / Under the post-Mao Regime
to leave country / No / Yes (with limits)
to own or run business / No / Yes (with limits)
of peaceful political opposition / No / No
of peaceful assembly / No / No
of all courts to total independence / No / No
from compulsory state ideology in schools / No / No
from party/state control of artistic and academic works / No / No
from political press censorship / No / No
from political mail censorship / No / No
from police detention without charges / No / No
From torture / No / No

Source: the dimensions of freedom are constructed with reference to Charles Humana, ed., World Human Rights Guide (London: Hutchinson and Co., Ltd., 1983), pp. 80-81

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