ii

Internationalization of the Curriculum

Internationalization of the Curriculum: A Remedy for International Students' Academic

Adjustment Difficulties?

A final paper submitted to Dr. Lenora Perry

Sherri Williams

Victoria, BC

In partial fulfillment of the requirements of Education 6890

For the degree of Master of Education

Faculty of Education

Memorial University of Newfoundland

St. John's

Newfoundland and Labrador

August 4, 2008


Abstract

International student recruitment is an important internationalization initiative of post-secondary institutions in Canada and around the world. International students’ diverse cultural backgrounds, experiences, and learning styles may not be met by the traditional, Euro-centric curriculum and pedagogy inherent in most Western post-secondary institutions. This paper critically examines whether 'internationalizing the curriculum', or incorporating an international and intercultural dimension into the curriculum and pedagogy of Western educational institutions, provides a more inclusive learning environment for international students and improves their chances for academic success. It includes a discussion of the academic challenges facing international students; the challenges inherent in the curricular reform process; the roles of the stakeholders; and the rationale, tenets, and approaches underlying internationalizing the curriculum. The research indicates that although the infusion approach to internationalizing the curriculum is the most-widely used in Canadian post-secondary institutions, the more culturally inclusive transformation approach is the goal towards which institutions should aspire to best meet the diverse learning needs of international students.


Table of Contents

Page

Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………………ii

Preface …………………………………………………………………………………………. v

Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………. 1

Rationale for Internationalizing the Curriculum ……………………………………………….. 4

Academic Adjustment Difficulties of International Students …………………………………. 7

Linguistic Challenges ………………………………………………………………….. 7

Pedagogy and Expectations for Learning ……………………………………………… 9

Curricular Concerns …………………………………………………………………...11

Challenges in Internationalizing the Curriculum ……………………………………………... 12

Institutional Policies and Support …………………………………………………….. 12

Funding and Resources ……………………………………………………………….. 13

Organizational Structure and Communication ……………………………………….. 14

Faculty Autonomy and Academic Freedom …………………………………………. 15

Commodification of Education ……………………………………………………….. 16

Hiring and Reward Policies ………………………………………………………….. 16

Faculty Development and International Experience …………………………………. 17

Intercultural Knowledge, Skills, and Interest ………………………………………… 18

Pedagogical and Content Concerns …………………………………………………... 19

Internationalization of the Curriculum ………………………………………………………... 19

Tenets, Goals, and Approaches ………………………………………………………. 19

Roles of Stakeholders ………………………………………………………………… 28

Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………………. 32

References …………………………………………………………………………………….. 33

Appendices ……………………………………………………………………………………. 44


Preface

"Today…internationalization of the university means far more than inter-personal or even inter-institutional cooperation across borders. It is a necessary, vital, and deliberate transformation of how we teach and learn and it is essential... to the future of Canada. In a world characterized by challenges and opportunities of global proportions, universities are key agents of change."

(The University of British Columbia, 2006, ¶ 2)


ii

Internationalization of the Curriculum

Internationalization of the Curriculum: A Remedy for International Students' Academic Adjustment Difficulties?

Introduction

Canadian universities have a long history of involvement in international education activities (James & Nef, 2002; Lemasson, 1999; Shute, 2002). However, the internationalization of higher education has become much more firmly entrenched within the Canadian post-secondary system over the past two decades (Knight, 1997, 2000a, 2000b). Although numerous definitions of the concept of internationalization exist, Knight (2003), a renowned expert in the field, defines the internationalization of higher education as "the process of integrating an international, intercultural or global dimension into the purpose, functions or delivery of post-secondary education" (p. 2).

The importance of valuing diversity within the teaching and learning functions of higher education is essential as post-secondary institutions engage in one of their many avenues of internationalization: the increased recruitment of international students to their campuses. In recent years, the recruitment of international students has become an important and highly competitive focus of post-secondary institutions in both Canada and around the world. If Canadian post-secondary institutions wish to remain competitive within the international education marketplace (Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada [AUCC], 2007a; Savage, 2005) it is crucial that they understand the diverse needs of their international student clientele, and provide a learning environment that meets their special needs (Canadian Association of University Teachers, 2008; Cunningham, 1991; Reus, 2007; Vertesi, 1999). Taylor (2004), in his study of internationalization practices at four universities worldwide summed it up nicely when he stated, "a strategy for internationalization is much more far reaching and inclusive than is implied simply by the recruitment of international students. At the heart of the development process lies a fundamental reexamination of teaching provision to reflect the challenge of internationalization" (p. 157).

International students often encounter pedagogical and curricular adjustment difficulties due to teaching methods, styles, and expectations that may be different from those they are accustomed to in their native cultures (Andrade, 2006; Arthur, 2004; Crabtree & Sapp, 2004; Dalili, 1982; Durkin, 2008; Grey, 2002; Poyrazli & Grahame, 2007; Zhai, 2002; Zhou, Jindal-Snape, Topping, & Todman, 2008). International students often perceive the content of the curriculum as exclusionary and cite concerns that instructors show a lack of interest in their prior knowledge (Arthur, 2004; Chen, 1996; Grey, 2002; Robertson, Line, Jones, & Thomas, 2000). Part of the difficulties these students encounter may be due to the traditional teaching and learning environment within Western higher educational institutions that may not reflect the cultural backgrounds and diverse learning needs of the international student population (Adams, 1992; Guo & Jamal, 2007; Hayle, 2008; Joseph, 2008; Samuel & Burney, 2003; Schapper & Mayson, 2004; Schuerholz-Lehr & van Gyn, 2006). Lynch (1997) indicated that students from diverse cultures who are exposed to the traditional "Euro-centric, male-biased curriculum using narrow methods of instruction,…may feel isolated and alienated from the educational goal that they are pursuing" (p. 57).

Curricular and pedagogical change, or what is commonly referred to as the internationalization of the curriculum may be an effective means of providing an academic environment that supports the diverse cultural learning needs of international students. Bond (2006) defined this curricular transformation as "changing fundamentally what we teach and how we teach it" (p. 3). Leask (2001) suggested that, "internationalizing university curricula is a powerful and practical way of bridging the gap between rhetoric and practice to including and valuing the contribution of international students" (p. 100). Although the phrase internationalization of the curriculum can refer to such varied internationalization activities as study abroad programs, foreign language courses, interdisciplinary or area programs, or the provision of programs or courses with an international, intercultural, or comparative focus (Bremer & van der Wende, 1995), within this paper the intent of an internationalized curriculum will be on "introduc[ing] an international, intercultural or global dimension into course content and materials and into teaching and learning methods" (AUCC, 2007b, ¶ 1). The focus, therefore, is not only on the subject matter of the curriculum, but also on the pedagogical implications of teaching and learning approaches that will promote the inclusion of international students (Adams, 1992; Bond, 2006; De Vita & Case, 2003; Leask, 2001; Marchesani & Adams, 1992; Maidstone, 1995; McKellin, 1998; McLoughlin, 2001).

This paper will examine whether an internationalized curriculum may be a means of creating a more pluralistic or culturally inclusive classroom environment for international students that could embrace the diversity required for their success. It will present an overview of the academic adjustment difficulties and learning needs of international students in higher education and propose a link between these students' unique needs and the necessity of curriculum and pedagogical reform. The internationalization of the curriculum will be presented as a potential remedy for alleviating the academic difficulties international students, from non-Western backgrounds, may face as a result of the traditional Euro-centric or Western biased curriculum and traditional pedagogical practices commonly found in Western post-secondary institutions. Support for and challenges inherent in internationalizing the curriculum will be examined along with the roles of the major stakeholders involved. A critical review of the literature in the field will attempt to answer the following research questions:

1. Does the Western, Euro-centric bias evident in the curriculum and pedagogical practices of Western higher education impede the academic success of international students?

2. If so, how can an internationalized curriculum better support the learning needs of this student population?

3. What constitutes an internationalized curriculum and how can it be implemented?

Rationale for Internationalizing the Curriculum

Numerous researchers emphasize the centrality of the curriculum and the internationalization of the curriculum and teaching and learning processes as critical elements of internationalization (Bond, 2003a; Bond, Qian, & Huang, 2003; Green & Olson, 2003; Knight, 1994, 1997, 2000a; Lemasson, 2002; Paige, 2003; Tonkin & Edwards, 1981). Knight (1994) described the curriculum as "the backbone of the internationalization process" (Knight, 1994, p. 6). Other researchers concur, emphasizing the importance of an internationalized curriculum in providing a student-centered learning experience for all students and in preparing students to be successful in today's increasingly interdependent global society (Bonfiglio, 1999; Leask, 2001; Lemasson, 2002; Schuerholz-Lehr, 2007; Schuerholz-Lehr, Caws, van Gyn, & Preece, 2007).

Education and the curriculum play a key role in shaping students' values (Khalideen, 2006). Because curriculum is typically reflective of the values, attitudes, and beliefs of a particular culture and an institution, forcing students to assimilate to an unfamiliar learning culture is unlikely to be successful and may negatively impact on their sense of identity (Cortazzi & Jin, 1997; Freedman, 1998; Kennedy, 1995; Khalideen, 2006; Mestenhauser, 2002b). The ethnocentric values underlying the curriculum and pedagogy in Western post-secondary institutions "keeps foreign students in their ghettos, makes it difficult for them to deal with our academic ethnocentrism and with abstracting theoretical principles from culture-bound instruction" (Mestenhauser, 2002b, p. 23). The combination of a didactic lecture format with tutorials and seminars that emphasize the discussion, critical thinking, and active learning inherent in Western post-secondary institutions "privilege[s] western forms of knowledge" (Joseph, 2008, p. 34) and disregards the diverse ways of knowing of international students. An optimal learning environment reflects students' "cultures, experiences, and perspectives" (Banks, 2004, p. 243). Because the manner in which people think, reason, and view knowledge is culturally and socially determined (Mestenhauser, 2002a; Peelo & Luxon, 2007), international students from diverse cultural backgrounds may have difficulty balancing the expectations of the traditional Western curricular perspective and pedagogical strategies with their own culturally based learning expectations and values.

Students' preferred learning styles and strategies are greatly determined by their social and cultural backgrounds (Harris, 1995; Mestenhauser, 2002a; Myles, Qian, & Cheng, 2002; Peelo & Luxon, 2007); however, faculty members' ethnocentric values and cultural framework also impact on how they judge students' learning styles and performance (Jin & Cortazzi, 1997; Miles et al., 2002; Valiente, 2008). Joseph (2008), a former international post-graduate student in Australia, suggested that the focus on "critical thinking and analysis, notions of plagiarism and ethics of research, language nuances and academic traditions as practiced within…western post-industrial countries are concepts located within a western ideology of academe" (p. 33). Valiente (2008) questioned the attitude of superiority embraced by Western faculty towards their preferred styles of learning and teaching and the Western assumption that international students use "the 'wrong' style of learning" (p. 73). McLoughlin (2001) and Biggs (2003) also cautioned against viewing an inclusive approach to learning and teaching from the 'deficit model' perspective. The deficit view posits that, "international students (students of diverse language, race and ethnic backgrounds) can be brought up to a 'normal' standard by redressing their 'deficits'" (McLoughlin, 2001, p. 12). Instead, these authors recommended that an inclusive learning and teaching environment should recognize, value, and accommodate students' cultural differences and worldviews. These researchers remind us of the importance of assessing our ethnocentric attitudes towards learning and of being sensitive to the diverse learning needs of students. Furthermore, both students and faculty should engage in a critical examination of their cultural differences in order to better understand each other's academic cultures, cultures of learning, and cultures of communication (Cortazi & Jin, 1997; Grey, 2002).

In comparing the educational outcomes of domestic and international students at four Canadian universities, Grayson (2006) concluded that, "the educational outcomes of international students are lower than those of domestic students" (p. 15). Despite the fact that the international students in Grayson's study entered university with equivalent or slightly higher grades than their domestic counterparts, their grade point averages and accumulated credits after their first year of studies were lower than those of domestic students. This underlines the importance of academic institutions providing support for international students and of committing "resources to deal with problems such as low levels of English linguistic capital" (Grayson, 2006, p. 26). One might also add the importance of institutions recognizing that international students' cultural backgrounds may demand a modification in curriculum and pedagogy to better meet the academic learning needs of these students.

Academic Adjustment Difficulties of International Students

International students who choose to study in a foreign environment face a host of cross-cultural adjustment difficulties as part of their transition experience. Carroll and Appleton (2007) aptly referred to the academic adjustment problems facing transitioning students as "academic 'culture shock'" (p. 72). Regardless of their cultural or linguistic background, all new students transitioning into higher education must learn to navigate and adjust to a new educational system and to the individual disciplines (Carroll & Appleton, 2007; Dalili, 1982; Ellis, Sawyer, Gill, Medlin, & Wilson, 1992; Mullins, Quintrell, & Hancock, 1995; Terenzini et al., 1994), each of which "has its own culture" (Ellis et al., 1992, p. 67). However, international students often face a myriad of cross-cultural adjustment problems that domestic students from Western society do not typically encounter (Andrade, 2006; Burns, 1991; Church, 1982; Pavel, 2006). As Peelo and Luxon (2007) emphasize, "learning means different things to different groups" (p. 68). It is important to recognize that international students cannot be considered a homogeneous group (Bond 2003a; Burns, 1991; Cunningham, 1991; Kuhlman, 1992; Mestenhauser, 2002b); therefore, international students, pending their personal and cultural background, experience varying types and levels of adjustment problems. Andrade (2006) noted that, "students from families, communities, and schools with widely different norms and behaviors from those in the college environment may have difficulty adjusting to the new environment" (p. 61). International students' academic adjustment difficulties can be exacerbated by variables such as their English language competency, difficulties with unfamiliar pedagogical styles and expectations for learning, and curricular content which does not recognize their unique cultural experiences and worldviews.