Chapter 1
Imagining Society
Chapter Objectives:
After reading and understanding this chapter, a student should be able to
· Explain how theory functions as a perspective
· Define the basic sociological perspective
· To classify sociological theories in terms of their assumptions about the nature of society and the purpose of theory
· Recall the major themes of classic sociological theory
Chapter Outline:
I. Foundations of Theory
Key concepts: perspectives; assumptions
A. Theory functions as a perspective
1. Perspectives are positions from which to view and attribute meaning.
2. They are made up of assumptions, language, values, sentiments, norms, and beliefs.
3. Perspectives determine what the researcher sees and doesn’t see
II. The Sociological Perspective
Key concepts: context; micro, meso, macro levels of analysis; interaction
A. Sociology understands every phenomenon within social contexts
B. There are three levels of analysis in the sociological perspective: macro, meso, micro
III. Assumptions Concerning Society
Key concepts: ontology; society as an object; Enlightenment; progress; empiricism; fatalism; positivism; scientific theory; abstract concepts; explicit definitions; logical relational statements; proposition; dynamic model; society as a web of signification; meaning; interpretive theory; analogy; types; analytical frameworks; thick descriptions
A. What we assume about society determines the way we theorize about society.
B. The sociological perspective makes assumptions about society’s way of existing (ontology)
C. Assumptions about the nature of society vary on a continuum from objective to subjective
D. Society as an object
1. Assumes that society is an objective entity that operates according to its own laws
2. Based in the Enlightenment, positivism, and empiricism
3. Type of theory: scientific
a. Assumptions of scientific theory: the universe is empirical, operates according to law-like principles, humans can discover the law-like principles
b. Goals: explain, predict, control
c. Elements of scientific theory: concepts, definitions, and relationships
d. Forms of scientific theory: propositions and dynamic models
E. Society as a web of signification
1. Assumes that human nature is based on meaning and free-will
2. Type of theory: interpretive
a. Goals: to understand
b. Elements: concepts and definitions
c. Forms of interpretive theory: analogies, types, analytical frameworks, and thick descriptions
IV. Assumptions Concerning Values
Key concepts: values and value-free; critical theory; value-rationality; instrumental rationality; deconstruction; praxis; description
A. The value assumption orients the theorist or researcher in terms of what should be done with knowledge
B. The value assumption varies on a continuum from critical to descriptive
C. The critical perspective
1. Generally deconstructs social relationships and arrangements in order to reveal underlying ideologies and to bring social change.
2. Is reflexively not value-free
3. Usually includes praxis
D. The descriptive perspective
1. Strives for simple description of phenomena and processes
2. Assumes that the researcher can be detached and value-free
3. Intentionally avoids personal involvement
V. The Beginnings of Theory and Learning to Theorize
Key concepts: thinking; passionate curiosity
A. Thinking as intentional behavior
B. Genuine intellectual curiosity
VI. Major Themes in Classical Theory
A. Modernity and social change
B. Structural differentiation and integration
C. Economic relations
D. Religion
E. Equality & oppression
F. Empiricism
G. Culture
Chapter Summary:
· All knowledge systems, including sociology and theory, are based on perspectives. Perspectives are founded upon assumptions and values; and they contain ideas, concepts, and language. Perspectives help us to see things, but they also blind us to others.
· Sociology as a whole is built upon a contextualizing perspective. Everything that sociologists study, whether it’s an institution such as the state (macro level), an organization like your university (meso level), or an individual (micro level), is assumed to be social. That is, everything human is in the main created, influenced, and maintained by, and has its purpose in social relations.
· The most basic assumption that sociologists make concerns the way society exists. This assumption runs on a continuum from supposing that society exists as an object external to and coercive of the individuals and groups that make it up, to positing that society exists symbolically through the interpretive moves of individuals in interaction. There are thus two ideal types of theory. Scientific theory assumes that society has an objective existence (structures that operate according to law-like principles) and is therefore defined as a formal and logically sound argument that explains an empirical phenomenon in abstract terms and dynamic relationships. The purpose of scientific theory is to explain, predict, and control. Interpretive theory assumes that society exists symbolically (through different cultural signs and practices) and is itself an interpretation that uses analogy, types, analytical frameworks, and thick descriptions. The goal of interpretive theory is to understand and convey the cultural meanings and practices of one group to another.
· The second assumption that sociologists make results in a value orientation toward society. This orientation runs on a continuum as well, from believing that sociologists and their theories ought to simply describe how society and/or its different elements work, to holding that sociologists and theories ought to be engaged in making human life better (by being critical about the present configuration of power and pointing the way to improved social arrangements).
· Learning theory is more than memorizing concepts, definitions, and relationships. Intrinsic to theory is the action of theorizing: theory is a peculiar way of looking at the world that is founded upon active thinking and questioning. Theorists are immersed in their social worlds; they think about them and question them continually.
· Generally speaking, classical theory is concerned with several themes: including but not limited to modernity, the economy and religion, culture, equality and oppression, social cohesion and change, and empiricism.
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