FACTORS UNDERLYING ANOMALOUS EXPERIENCE
To read up on factors underlying anomalous experience, refer to pages 659–678 of Eysenck’s A2 Level Psychology.
Ask yourself
· Why do you think some people are more able to experience paranormal phenomena than others?
· How do paranormal beliefs differ across cultures?
· How might self-deception account for paranormal phenomena?
What you need to know
COGNITIVE, PERSONALITY, AND BIOLOGICAL FACTORS UNDERLYING ANOMALOUS EXPERIENCE / FUNCTIONS OF PARANORMAL AND RELATED BELIEFS, INCLUDING THEIR CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE / THE PSYCHOLOGY OF DECEPTION AND SELF-DECEPTION, SUPERSTITION, AND COINCIDENCE· Cognitive factors such as the sheep–goat effect
· Personality factors such as fantasy proneness (FP) and extraversion
· Biological factors such as temporal lobe lability and electrohypersensitivity / · Psychodynamic functions hypothesis
· A lack of control as a result of childhood experience
· Loneliness and insecure attachment
· Cultural significance / · Deception and self-deception
· Superstition
· Perceptual and memory errors
· Superstitions and the unconscious
· Contemporary ideas and research on superstition
· Coincidence
COGNITIVE, PERSONALITY, AND BIOLOGICAL FACTORS UNDERLYING ANOMALOUS EXPERIENCE
Cognitive Factors
A cognitive factor that affects anomalous experience is the sheep–goat effect, which refers to whether a person is a believer or non-believer in the paranormal. Believers are “sheep” and non-believers “goats”.
RESEARCH EVIDENCE FOR COGNITIVE FACTORS
· Jones and Russell (1980, see A2 Level Psychology page 659) show how this cognitive factor can affect paranormal experience. Sheep and goats watched a demonstration of ESP; there were four groups of participants. One group of each type observed a “successful” demonstration whereas the others witnessed an unsuccessful demonstration. When asked to recall the demonstration, the sheep who observed the unsuccessful demonstration had distorted recall as they reported that it had been successful; whereas goats were much better at recalling what actually happened irrespective of whether the demonstration was successful or not.
· Wiseman, Smith, and Wiseman (1995, A2 Level Psychology page 659) showed that being a sheep or a goat influenced what one recalled of a séance. During the séance participants were asked to try to move objects placed in the centre of the table. In reality, nothing ever moved. Sheep were much more likely (40%) to report an object had moved than were disbelievers (14%). Also, 20% of believers thought that something genuine had occurred; this was 0% in the disbeliever group.
· Cognitive biases can also affect people’s belief in horoscopes (Wiseman & Smith, 2002, see A2 Level Psychology page 660). Eighty participants were asked to read and judge four horoscopes, two of which were labelled “reading from your birth sign”, and the other two were labelled “reading from another birth sign”. These were counterbalanced for each participant, but all read the same four horoscopes. Prior to this, all participants completed the Belief in Astrology Questionnaire. The findings showed cognitive biases do affect horoscope readings as believers gave much lower generality scores than disbelievers on all horoscopes and higher accuracy ratings.
EVALUATION OF COGNITIVE FACTORS
· Natural experiments. The above research studies are all natural experiments because they test for a naturally occurring difference between sheep and goats. The problem with this is that without a manipulated IV we cannot control cause and effect and so we cannot conclude that being a sheep is a causative factor in anomalous experience.
Personality Factors
One such personality trait that may affect anomalous experience is fantasy proneness (FP) and another is extraversion.
RESEARCH EVIDENCE FOR PERSONALITY FACTORS
· Wilson and Barber (1983, see A2 Level Psychology page 661) proposed the personality trait fantasy proneness based on their study of 27 excellent hypnotic females (the FP group) and a control group of 26 females who weren’t. They found that the majority of the FP group thought that their toys had feelings and emotions, they assumed the roles of fantasy characters during play, and they were praised by parents for fantasy play. As adults the FP group spent more time fantasising during the day, experience fantasies as “real as real”, have psychic abilities, and experience apparitions.
· Gow et al. (2001 see A2 Level Psychology page 661) researched FP in a sample of people who claimed to have seen a UFO or experienced an alien abduction and compared them with a control group. They found reporting any type of UFO experience was linked to heightened levels of FP and stronger beliefs in paranormal activity.
· Parra and Villaneuva (2003, see A2 Level Psychology page 662) tested 30 participants, all of whom completed the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) and a Pre-Ganzfeld Questionnaire. The latter questionnaire measured relaxation, mood, motivation, and expectation of success. The EPI measures level of extraversion, a personality trait characterised by being outgoing and seeking new experiences, and so it was predicted that extraverts would manifest psi better than introverts. The results clearly demonstrated that extraverts scored significantly better at ESP than the introverts.
RESEARCH EVIDENCE AGAINST PERSONALITY FACTORS
· Roberts (1997, see A2 Level Psychology page 661) noted that, at the time he reviewed the evidence, only three main studies had been conducted (Ring & Rosing, 1990; Bartholomew et al., 1991; Spanos et al., 1993), of which only one had noted any significant link to FP. It is therefore unclear as to the role of FP in experiences.
EVALUATION OF PERSONALITY FACTORS
· Cause and effect. The measures of fantasy proneness were taken post-event, and so there is no way of clearly seeing if the FP caused the experience or the experience caused the FP! This is also a weakness of the natural experimental method because personality type cannot be manipulated as an IV, then association rather than causation can be established. This means we cannot say that FP causes anomalous experience.
· Control group. The use of control groups is a useful control as this enables comparisons to be made.
· Extraversion as a confounding variable. This research on extraversion shows that personality could bias the findings of ESP–Ganzfeld studies, so this could be another confounding variable reducing the validity of the findings. However, parapsychologists would counter this with the fact that this just shows certain types of people are more receptive to ESP.
· Sample bias. The small sample size means the findings have limited generalisability.
· Researcher bias. It is possible that the researchers’ expectations cued the participants in some way and so the findings are due to this rather than real differences between the different groups of participants.
· Self-report. The self-report nature of the surveys mean that the findings are weakened by biases such as demand characteristics (guessing the aim of the researcher and providing the results that are wanted) and social desirability (exaggerating or minimising characteristics to in order to present themselves in the best possible light.
Biological Factors
Two key biology factors that may underpin paranormal experiences are temporal lobe lability and electrohypersensitivity, and both of these may be linked.
RESEARCH EVIDENCE FOR BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
· The Temporal Lobe Lability Hypothesis was proposed by Persinger (1983, see A2 Level Psychology page 662). He proposed the temporal lobe has the lowest electrical output, and so it would be most affected by electromagnetism. The temporal lobe houses memories and fantasies so, if over-stimulated, people could have strange occurrences.
· Persinger produced many papers showing differing levels of correlation between temporal lobe stimulation and paranormal beliefs and experiences. Persinger claimed he could “induce” an alien abduction experience in the laboratory by stimulating the temporal lobes.
Blackmore (1994, see A2 Level Psychology page 663) tested Persinger’s claim for a Horizon programme on the BBC, and has provided confirmation of Persinger’s findings. She wore a special helmet that directly stimulated the temporal lobes via magnetic fields, whilst sitting in a dimly lit room with ping-pong balls over her eyes. After about 10 minutes, she reported an abduction-like experience as she felt as if two hands had grabbed her and were pulling her upwards followed by having her leg pulled, distorted, and dragged up to the ceiling!
Research (Budden, 1994, see A2 Level Psychology page 663) on electrohypersensitivity (which refers to the idea that some people are more affected by electromagnetic output than others) consisted of case studies and anecdotal evidence linking a range of electromagnetic sources to apparitions and alien abduction experiences. For example, many people who claim visitations appeared to live near electricity sub-stations, mobile-phone transmitters, pylons, or television masts. Thus, it was concluded that electromagnetic “pollution” was causing anomalous experiences, especially ghosts and alien visitation, and that those who are electrically hypersensitive are more affected by electromagnetic pollution.
· Jawer (2006, see A2 Level Psychology page 664) studied 112 participants, 62 of whom were “sensitives” and 50 comprised a control group. “Sensitives” reported significantly more allergies and electrical sensitivity (had been struck by lightening and had been affected by electrical appliances) and seeing more apparitions and objects moving than the controls and so supports the link between electrohypersensitivity and paranormal experiences.
RESEARCH EVIDENCE AGAINST BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
· Blackmore and Cox (2000, see A2 Level Psychology page 663) tested out the Temporal Lobe Lability Hypothesis in 12 people claiming alien abduction. They were compared with 12 matched controls and a group of students. All participants completed the Personal Philosophy Inventory, which is designed to measure temporal lobe lability. However, the abductees scored lower on temporal lobe lability. They were also asked about their experience of sleep paralysis and the “abductee” group scored significantly higher in terms of indicators of sleep paralysis. Thus, it was concluded that experience of alien abduction may be more linked to a sleep paralysis episode than temporal lobe lability.
· Spanos et al. (1993; see A2 Level Psychology page 663) discovered no difference between an alien abduction group and control group on a questionnaire measuring temporal lobe lability, therefore further contradicting Persinger’s claims.
EVALUATION OF BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
· Cause and effect. The findings on temporal lobe lability and electrohypersensitivity correlations do not state cause and effect.
· Lack of scientific evidence. Budden never tested out these ideas and simply stuck to producing endless case study accounts of the after-effects. The ideas were not tested experimentally or prospectively to “predict” visitations and visions.
· Lack understanding of electrohypersensitivity. Further research is needed to pinpoint the exact mechanisms that cause electrohypersensitivity.
· Reductionist. The idea that temporal lobe lability and electrohypersensitivity cause parapsychology experience is reductionist as this ignores other factors, and, of course, research shows that cognitive, personality, and many other factors are likely to play a part.
FUNCTIONS OF PARANORMAL AND RELATED BELIEFS, INCLUDING THEIR CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE
Psychodynamic Functions Hypothesis
One reason suggested for why people hold these beliefs is based on psychodynamic psychology. The Psychodynamic Functions Hypothesis suggests early trauma (e.g. abuse) can lead to a belief in the paranormal. Irwin (1992, see A2 Level Psychology page 664) suggests childhood trauma leads to childhood fantasy (e.g. high imagination, prone to fantasy play, etc.) as a coping mechanism and this means the trauma can be repressed into the unconscious. This manifests itself as either a paranormal experience or a stronger belief in paranormal activities during adolescence and adulthood.
RESEARCH EVIDENCE FOR PSYCHODYNAMIC FUNCTIONS
· Lawrence et al. (1995, see A2 Level Psychology page 665) tested the hypothesis using 80 students from the University of Edinburgh. They completed measures on traumatic childhood experiences, belief in the paranormal, and childhood fantasy. The initial correlations showed some relationship between childhood trauma and paranormal experience, and also with childhood fantasy. However, the correlation between childhood trauma and paranormal belief just missed out on significance (P < 0.06). As a result of this, Lawrence et al. modified the theory by stating childhood trauma can affect paranormal experience, which in turn affects paranormal beliefs.
A lack of control as a result of childhood experience
The Psychodynamic Functions Hypothesis has been expanded to give a broader theory. The concept of control and whether this is internal (feel have control of life) or external (feel external factors have control), as suggested by Rotter (1954, see A2 Level Psychology page 665), has been added to the theory. External locus of control is more closely associated with paranormal belief and so Irwin (2005, see A2 Level Psychology page 665) suggests that paranormal beliefs arise because of a lack of control brought about not just by childhood abuse/trauma but any childhood experience characterised by a lack of control (e.g. having older siblings, having authoritarian parents, moving house a lot).
RESEARCH EVIDENCE FOR A LACK OF CONTROL
· Watts, Watson, and Wilson (2007, see A2 Level Psychology page 665) tested the theory using 127 students from the University of Edinburgh. They completed a range of questionnaires including ones on paranormal beliefs and perceived childhood control. Irwin’s merged theory is supported because when belief in the paranormal increased, perceived childhood control decreased. This led to the conclusion that a lack of control in childhood leads to insecurity and helplessness, and so this leads to a fantasy-driven unconscious mechanism to cope with everyday uncertainty.
Loneliness and insecure attachment
Rogers, Qualter, and Phelps (2007, see A2 Level Psychology page 666) proposed that loneliness and/or attachment style affected paranormal belief. Thus, paranormal experience may be a way of dealing with loneliness and childhood insecurity, in particular, the avoidant attachment style may be able to explain paranormal beliefs because it follows the Psychodynamic Functions Hypothesis idea that we ignore and avoid dealing with the traumatic events of childhood.
RESEARCH EVIDENCE INTO LONELINESS AND INSECURE ATTACHMENT
· Over 250 participants from a range of backgrounds completed questionnaires measuring paranormal beliefs, childhood trauma, loneliness, and attachment style. Childhood trauma was the strongest predictor of paranormal beliefs but other factors were also found to have a significant effect, such as proneness to fantasy and social loneliness. Insecure attachment and belief in the paranormal showed some relationship but not a strong one.
EVALUATION OF RESEARCH INTO LONELINESS AND INSECURE ATTACHMENT