Course HRD 2101: COMMUNICATION SKILLS
LECTURE NO. 6
Lecturer: Paul N. Njoroge
WRITING SKILLS II: MECHANICS
AND COMPOSITION WRITING
1.0 Introduction
My Lecture no. 5 laid emphasis on grammatical construction of sentences. The sentence is the basic unit of English composition. If you can write a composition with grammatically correct sentences you will certainly earn yourself a good percentage of the marks. The point was made—and it is here repeated—that one should not only formally learn the rules about how sentences are constructed, but one should also seek to expose oneself to examples of good writing, so that these rules become mentally internalised, One should read as many good books as possible on all types of subjects.
As we noted in Lecture no. 5 composition writing also requires knowledge of correct punctuation, spelling and other mechanics of presenting written work. It will not be possible to discuss these skills in any detail, because it is necessary, in order to cover the areas specified in the Course Description, to highlight composition writing and examples of different types of composition. However, before I discuss composition writing and give examples of different types of composition, I’ll say something about punctuation, spelling and mechanics.
2.0 Punctuation, Spelling and Mechanics
2.1 Punctuation
Punctuation has been defined in Lecture no. 5. You will need to learn how to use the following punctuation marks:
1. the comma (,)
2. the semi-colon (;)
3. the colon (:)
4. the full stop/full point/period (.)
5. the question mark (?)
6. the exclamation mark (!)
7. quotation marks (“ ” ‘ ’)
8. the dash (–)
9. parenthesis ( )
10. the slash (/)
2.1.1 Commas may be used with conjunctions (a), after introductory elements (b), with non-restrictive elements (c), with dates, addresses, names and large numbers (d). See the following examples:
(a) Kenyan students are keen to enroll in Ugandan universities, but Ugandan students consider Kenyan higher education too costly.
(b) Whenever the long rains come, the Budalangi plains become flooded.
(c) (i) Isaac Newton, who became a professor of mathematics at the age of twenty-six, epitomises the 17th century Scientific Revolution.
(ii) At the altar stood the expectant bride, wearing a bright white robe.
(d) (i) In the evening of November 23, 2005, the President dissolved his cabinet.
(ii) The return address on the letter was 23 Hockney Street, Lexington, Kentucky 40502.
(iii) Dear Jane.
(iv) Before you treat the child, Dr. Otieno, let me give you the history of her problem.
Exercise 1 Using Commas with Conjunctions (Heffernan, p. 433) each of the following sentences may require the addition or removal of a comma. Make any changes necessary. I f any sentence is correct as it is, write Correct.
EXAMPLE
We can stop for the night in Moose Jaw or we can push on to Regina
CORRECTED
We can stop for the night in Moose Jaw, or we can push on to Regina.
1. Odysseus longs to return to his home on the island of Ithaca but he does not reach it for ten years.
2. He blinds the son of the sea-god Poseidon so, he must endure Poseidon’s avenging wrath.
3. Poseidon’s son is a one-eyed giant named Polyphemus and he lives alone in a cave with herds of sheep, and goats.
4. Odysseus enters the cave with his men one day, for, he expects to find hospitality there.
5. Instead the giant blocks the exit with a massive stone, eats two of Odysseus’ men, and threatens to devour the rest.
6. Odysseus and his men seem doomed but, Odysseus blinds the giant, and escapes with his men.
7. They escape by hiding under the bellies of rams for the giant does not see the men when he lets his herds out of the cave.
8. Odysseus then recklessly shouts his name to the giant so, the giant asks Poseidon to make Odysseus’ homecoming as painful as possible.
Exercise 3 Punctuating Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Elements (Heffernan, p. 437)
Decide whether each of the italicized elements is restrictive or non-restrictive, and add or remove commas where necessary. If a sentence is correct as it stands, write Correct.
EXAMPLE
All motorists, who drive recklessly, should have their licences suspended for six months.
DECISION: restrictive clause
CORRECTED
All motorists who drive recklessly should have their licences suspended for six months.
1. My brother’s car a 1979 Ford Fiesta looks like a gooey red marshmallow.
2. The interior which has never been cleaned is sticky with grime.
3. Nobody could close the front ashtray which is stuffed with bottle caps, Kleenex tissues, and wads of chewing gum.
4. The dashboard, another disaster area, has all but disappeared beneath the dust that has built up over the months.
5. The speedometer is barely visible, and it’s impossible for anyone, with normal vision, to read the fuel gauge.
2.1.2 The Semi-colon (;)
EXERCISE 1 Using Semicolons (Heffernan pp. 445/446)
Each of the following items requires the addition or removal of one or more semicolons. Make any necessary changes, adding other punctuation if necessary.
EXAMPLE
Some people give others take.
CORRECTED
Some people give; others take.
1. The Gateway Arch in St. Louis symbolises opportunity, in particular, it represents the soaring aspirations of America’s pioneers; who ventured into unknown lands throughout the nineteenth century.
2. The pioneers consisted of many subgroups; New England farmers seeking richer soil, immigrants fleeing a nation’s slums, shy trappers from the north, lusty mountain men, failed merchants, and adventurers with an eye for danger. [A colon (:) is needed somewhere.]
2.1.3 The Colon (:)
Examples of correct use of colon (see Heffernan, p. 446):
(a) Success depends on three things: talent, determination, and luck.
(b) The animals have a good many of our practical skills: some insects make pretty fair architects, and beavers know quite a lot about engineering.
(c) 8:40, 6:30, 11:15
EXERCISE Use Semicolons and Colons to punctuate the following paragraph (Heffernan p. 448).
The events on Good Friday are tragic. At 10 00 a grim-looking priest conducts a solemn service Christ is removed from the Cross and placed in a tomb. All work ceases flags fly at half mast. Soldiers carry their rifles reversed as they do during funeral processions. Offices and shops close everyone goes to church. The church bells will toll all day long. After the service the young girls of the parish perform a bitter-sweet task they decorate the bier of Jesus with flowers from 11 00 to 1 00. By that time it is a mass of flowers.
2.1.4 The Fullstop (.)
Fullstops are used to mark the end of a declarative sentence
(a), mild command (b), or an indirect question (c):
(a) It is cloudy and humid and rains are expected.
(b) Pay attention to the lecture.
(c) Pay attention to what is being said.
Fullstops are also used to mark the end of some abbreviations: Dr. Otieno; Mr. G. H. Barasa; 3 p.m. 350 B.C. A.D. 1440; U.S.A.; U.K.
2.1.5 The Question Mark (?)
The question mark may be used to mark the end of a direct question: Who wrote Things Fall Apart? A question mark may also be used to indicate uncertainly within a statement:
A lot of money (one hundred billion shillings?) has been lost through corruption.
EXERCISE Punctuate the following paragraph by inserting fullstops and question marks and making necessary changes in capitalization. (See Heffernan, p. 452.)
How do historians rate the contributions of Gen Gordon to his country their opinions differ some consider him a military genius, one of the greatest soldiers in British history other criticize him severely in their opinion C G Gordon, or “Chinese Gordon” as he was popularly known, acted impulsively he was rash he was dangerous he was not fit to hold a command did he seek death on Jan 26, 1885 historians give conflicting answers
2.1.6 Quotation Marks
Quotation marks are used to enclose any words, phrases or short passages quoted from speech, writing, or printed matter:
Jesus told his listeners, “Love your neighbour as yourself.”
“We are all strong enough”, wrote Rochefoucauld, “to endure the misfortunes of others.”
Quotations within a quotation: “Who wrote the poem ‘Tavern Moscow’?”
EXERCISE Punctuating with Quotation Marks (Heffernan, pp. 462/463)
Use quotation marks and any other punctuation needed in the following sentences.
EXAMPLE
What writer asked, Who has deceived thee so oft as thyself
PUNCTUATED
What writer asked, “Who has deceived thee so oft as thyself?”
1. Did Ambrose Bierce define a bore as a person who talks when you wish him to listen
2. Alexander Pope wrote, True wit is nature to advantage dressed, What oft was thought, but ne’er so well expressed
3. The history of the earth says Rachel Carson has been a history of interaction between living things and their surroundings.
4. Perhaps the poet John Donne was right when he wrote: One short sleep past, we wake externally/And death shall be no more.
5. My roommate torments me by repeating trite sayings like better safe than sorry.
2.1.7 The Dash (—)
The dash introduces a word, phrase, or clause that summarizes or restates what comes before:
Terns, geese and warblers—all migratory birds—fly hundreds of kilometers each year.
2.1.8 Parenthesis ( )
These are round ‘brackets’, used to enclose words, phrases, or complete sentences that offer a side comment or help to clarify a point.
No Allied leader would have flinched at assassinating Hitler, had that been possible. (The Allies did assassinate Heydrich.)
Parentheses may also be used to enclose numerals (numbers) confirming a spelled out number (or a number written out in words):
He was fined shillings ten thousand (10,000) for drunken driving.
2.1.9 The Slash (/)
The slash may be used to indicate alternative words:
The fullstop/period is used at the end of a declarative sentence.
EXERCISE Use the dash, parenthesis and slash to punctuate the following sentences (Heffernan, p. 467)
EXAMPLE
The asking price for the clock a whooping $500,000 has not deterred some collectors from attending the auction.
PUNCTUATED
The asking price for the clock—a whooping $500,000—has not deterred some collectors from attending the auction.
1. An excellent production of Antigone the version by Jean Anouilh has reminded us how easily tyrants can justify their actions.
2. The number of acres allotted to one family may not be less than twenty five 25 nor more than fifty 50.
3. The petitioner need not appeal directly to the governors unless he she wishes to speak in support of the request.
4. The neighborhood lacks three important things: 1 paved roads 2 traffic lights at every major intersection, and 3 adequate police protection.
5. When we arrived in Warner it’s about fifteen miles west of Concord we had the fan belt adjusted.
2.2 Spelling
All one needs to note here is that English spelling is erratic and unpredictable: words are not always spelt the way they are pronounced. A good example are words ending in ough: cough, plough, rough, through, thorough, and bough. One must learn spelling by checking words in the dictionary and memorizing the spellings.
2.3 Mechanics
“Mechanics are conventional rules such as the one requiring capitalization for the first word of a sentence.” (Heffernan, p. 481) Mechanics may also involve rules about paragraphing, using italics or underlining, or capitalising words in titles.
2.3.1 Paragraphing
If you are hand-writing, you may either indent the first line of the paragraph, or leave line spacing between paragraphs, which are set out as blocks of text. If you are letter-processing a document on computer, you will leave line spaces between paragraphs, most likely without indenting the first lines of paragraphs.
2.3.2 Using Capital Letters
1. Capitalize the first word of a sentence—that is, capitalize the first letter of the first word. When writing out titles of essays, poems, books, etc. capitalize all main words: Things Fall Apart, “Piano and Drums”, “A Leopard Lives on a Muu Tree”, etc.
2. Capitalize proper nouns and proper adjectives: Canada (n.), Canadian (adj.), Jefferson (n.), Jeffersonian (adj.), World War 1, the American Civil War, etc.
3. Capitalize main words in titles/headings, as suggested in point no. 1, above:
The Uses of Iron in Industry
EXERCISE Capitalize where necessary (Heffernan, p. 482)
1. the grand canyon extends over 270 miles from east to west, measuring 18 miles from rim to rim at its widest point, and reaches a depth of approximately 1 mile.
2. the canyon has been formed over billions of years by a combination of forces, including wind, erosion, and, in particular, the action of the mighty colorado river.
3. some of the canyon’s most spectacular sights are to be found within grand canyon national park, which lies in northern arizona.
4. to protect the canyon from commercial development, president theodore roosevelt declared it a national monument in 1908, then in 1919 the congress of the united states proclaimed it a national park.
5. today the park attracts visitors from all of the fifty states as well as from countries far and near, including japan, south korea, france and canada; the tourists prefer to arrive in july and august.
2.3.3 Use of Italics and Underlining
If you are using a computer programme like Microsoft Word, you will find it possible to use italics for titles of books like general works and novels and long plays, or the titles of periodicals/newspapers and magazines. If you are hand-writing or using a typewriter you will have to underline these.
EXAMPLES:
John Marks, Science and the Making of the Modern World. (a general work)
Chinua Achebe, Arrow of God. (a novel)
Wole Soyinka, Madmen and Specialists (a play)
The Daily Nation, The Standard, Newsweek.
The title of a short poem or a short story is put within quotation marks: “Survive the Peace”, “A Leopard Lives on a Muu Tree”, “Tavern Moscow”.
2.3.4 Using Abbreviations and Numbers
1. Abbreviate most titles accompanying a name:
Dr. Jane Omondi
Hamisi Mustafa, M.D.
2. Abbreviate terms that help to specify a time of time of day:
3000 B.C AD 1440 8:30 a.m. 2:15 p.m.
3. Abbreviate names of well known organizations.
UNEP YWCA
3.0 Actual Composition Writing
We have covered quite fully the topic of writing good sentences in lecture no. 5. Our interest in this section is actual generation of compositions, from the stage of Pre-writing, through actual composition of paragraphs, to final revision and editing of your composition. We shall also say something about different types of composition—the essay, the letter, summary, and résumés and, indeed, attach to this Lecture good extracts from well written books. You should closely study those examples.
What are you supposed to achieve in your writing? Needless to say, you must, on the minimum, achieve correctness in sentence structure, in using appropriate words and registers and correct spelling, punctuation and mechanics. These things have already been discussed. But you must also achieve what Heffernan and Lincoln have called rhetorical power in their book. Writing informed with rhetorical power “informs, excites, delights, and persuades the readers for whom its written”. In other words, you achieve rhetorical power when you acquire the ability to carry your reader along. Writing that has rhetorical power is writing that is compelling, that commands attention. Needless to say rhetorical power is nourished by an imaginative, creative and curious mind, but it also requires a cultivated ease and facility with the language you are using—in this case English.