consumer behaviour

Chapter 8
Motivation and Emotion

Chapter Overview

Motivation is behind all purchases, whether the buyer is a consumer or an organisation. Marketers need to be aware of both the conscious and unconscious drivers behind consumer behaviour. Motivational research will help marketers segment their markets and prepare marketing campaigns to better suit consumer needs.

Hull, Maslow, McGuire and McClelland each address theories that are relevant to the marketing discipline and consumer behaviour.

Motives can be conscious or unconscious in nature, extrinsic or intrinsic, or functional or expressive. Conflict can occur when different motives are acting on a consumer, but marketers can use strategies to help overcome these situations.

Emotion can also appeal to consumer’s motives. Research has revealed that men and women react differently to emotional appeals by marketers.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, students should be able to:

·  Describe the nature of consumer motivation and the different types of buying motives

·  Discuss how the major theories of motivation relate to consumer behaviour

·  Outline the influence of motivational conflict on the purchase decision process

·  Discuss the difference between rational and emotional motives

·  Describe the tactics used in motivational research

·  Discuss the nature of emotion and its influence over marketing strategy development.

CHAPTER TOPICS

  1. What is motivation?
  2. The nature of motivation
  3. Major theories of motivation

·  Drive and primary and secondary motives

·  McClelland’s secondary needs theory

·  Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory

·  McGuire’s psychological motivation theory

  1. Motivational roles
  2. Motivation and organisational buying

·  Situational needs

·  Functional needs

·  Social needs

·  Knowledge needs

  1. Fear appeals
  2. Motivational conflict

·  Avoidance–Avoidance conflict

·  Approach–Avoidance conflict

·  Approach–Approach conflict

  1. Social marketing and motivation
  2. Motivational research

·  Case in point 8.1—Motivational research

·  Case in point 8.2—Emotive pitch is key to women

  1. Emotion

LECTURE OUTLINE

Encourage discussion to introduce subject:

Consumers don’t just buy a product or service for the sake of it. And often our reasons for purchase go beyond the functional benefits of that product.

Ask students what brand of watch they are wearing. Why do people buy a Rolex watch, if their prime reason or motivation is to tell the time? Different groups of people are motivated by different reasons. Most people buy a watch for an accurate picture of the time. But some want special functions (like a stopwatch); others want a fashion accessory they can change with their outfits, whilst others need a large face so it’s easy to see the time.

As marketers, we are interested in knowing what motivates buyers so we can satisfy their needs. We don’t create consumer needs, we appeal to existing needs.

This chapter will consider the nature of motivation and various motivation theories that help us to understand buyers better. In this context, we refer to both consumers and organisational buyers.

1. What is motivation?

Motivation describes the ‘internal drives of an individual which arouse, maintain and direct human behaviour towards a goal’ (text, p. 222). Motives drive behaviour and different people are motivated by different goals. Figure 8.1 (text, p. 222) illustrates how individuals are motivated towards achieving goals. Refer to the interactive exercises for discussion ideas.

2. The nature of motivation

Motivation is closely linked to personality and learning. Self-concept is also reflected in our motivation behind a purchase.

·  Motivation can be quite complex to research, because sometimes consumers don’t know the reasons behind a purchase, or are unwilling to verbalise their true motivations. This can also be addressed when looking at conscious versus unconscious motives. Challenge students to think of the real reasons for visiting that nightclub on a regular basis. Surely it isn’t so you can pay more for drinks?

·  Purchases may be made for functional (rational) or expressive (emotive) reasons. Functional criteria are based on the actual attributes or features of a product or service. We tend to think of businesses as assessing their purchases in this way, although human beings are still the ones making the decisions. The expressive reason for buying includes the emotive reasons like a prestige brand and peer approval. In this case, the product is evaluated based on the product and its fit with the consumer’s ideal ‘self-concept’.

·  Motivation can be positive or negative in direction. We may feel a driving force toward some object or condition (like being fit or looking good), or a driving force away from some object or condition (avoiding fatty foods or ill-fitting clothing for our age).

·  Motives and goals are constantly changing. We are rarely completely satisfied. New needs emerge as old needs are satisfied. Researchers have concluded that individuals who successfully achieve their goals usually set new and higher goals for themselves.

·  Consumer behaviour and the intensity of drives are influenced by expectations of success or failure in reaching certain goals. When a consumer may not be able to achieve a goal they expect will satisfy their needs (or motivations), their behaviour may be directed to an alternative or substitute goal. For example, a person may not be able to afford Redken products for their hair on a regular basis, but some marketers have put out close substitutes to meet the consumer’s needs.

·  Motivation can be intrinsic (internally driven) or extrinsic (externally driven). For example, hunger is an involuntary physiological drive from within our own bodies. However, an advertisement whilst driving or the passing of the golden arches may be an extrinsic cue to eat McDonald’s.

3.  Major theories of motivation

There are many different theories that try to explain motivation.

Drive and primary and secondary motives

In the 1940s Hull considered that our primary drives (or homeostatic needs) were biological needs like hunger, safety and thirst. Later this theory was modified to also include secondary drives, which also cause tension and anxiety. These secondary drives are typically learned. When anxiety is reduced, an individual’s drive is then reduced or diminished. This is why it is called ‘drive reduction’ theory.

One major assumption behind this theory is that once a drive is satisfied, the tension is reduced. This conflicts with our earlier discussions on how our drives or motives are constantly changing, and can become more intense at a different level once the primary goals are achieved.

McClelland’s secondary needs theory

McClelland developed a theory based on a trio of needs. The key to this theory is that these needs are learned, based on rewards and punishment (and closely linked to operant conditioning, covered in Chapter 6.) These needs are as follows:

  1. The need for achievement considers that people with a high need for achievement tend to be self-confident, risk-averse and similar to those self-made millionaires raised in the previous chapter in Case in point 7.3.
  1. The need for affiliation suggests that behaviour is highly influenced by the desire for friendship, acceptance and belonging.
  1. The need for power relates to an individual’s desire to control others. Many individuals experience increased self-esteem when they employ power over objects or other people.

Consider the Interactive Class Exercise below for examples.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory

Abraham Maslow developed a widely-accepted theory of motivation based on a ‘hierarchy of needs’. His theory suggests that individuals seek to satisfy lower-level needs before higher-level needs emerge.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs includes five categories of needs:

  1. Physiological needs—these needs are the individual’s basic physical needs, including food, water, shelter, clothing, rest and sex.
  2. Safety needs—these needs are concerned with physical and psychological safety. Physical safety includes protection from danger and ill-health. Psychological needs address order, stability, routine, familiarity, security and assurance in the future.
  3. Social needs—include needs of acceptance, love, affection and belonging.
  4. Esteem needs—take either an inward or outward point of reference, or both. Inwardly-directed needs reflect an individual’s need for self-acceptance, self-esteem, success, independence and personal satisfaction. Outward-directed needs include the need for recognition by others, prestige, a fine reputation or status.
  5. Self-actualisation needs—these needs are never really satisfied. Self actualisation refers to the desire to be our very best and fulfil our potential.

Maslow believed that once one set of needs was satisfied, people would be motivated by higher order needs. In fact, people can be motivated by more than one level of needs at a time, with the importance of each level dependent on the individual’s particular situation. This makes sense, since we can’t always go back to the beginning of the hierarchy because we are hungry, and then make our way up through every level of the hierarchy to seek approval from others once we have eaten!

The importance individuals place on certain needs may change over time. For example, if a person loses their house in a bushfire, they will be more interested in finding accommodation than job satisfaction. Interestingly, in more advanced countries like Australia, most people’s lower-order needs are satisfied, so advertising tends to focus more on higher-order needs of belongingness, esteem and image.

Refer to both the Interactive and Discussion Exercises below to encourage student participation.

McGuire’s psychological motivation theory

McGuire’s theory of motivation suggests that individuals have separate internal and external motives. External motives are based on social influences and internal motives are based on aspects of the consumer’s sense of self. This relates very closely to consumer behaviour, since typically influences are divided into two categories—(1) internal (Chapters 5–9) and (2) external (Chapters 10–12).

Table 8.1 summarises the major aspects of McGuire’s theory.

Internal motive or need / Description / Example
Need for consistency / Internal equilibrium or balance / An elite product is higher priced and available at exclusive stores
Need for (attribute) causation / Determine the causes of what happens to us / Our friend recommending a certain product is likely to be believed more than a salesperson’s efforts
Need to categorise / Organise information and experiences in a meaningful way / Price points such as fragrance over $100 and fragrance under $100
Need for cues / Observable signs that allow us to know what is happening / The tick from the Heart Foundation lets us know the product is good for us
Need for independence / Driven by a need for self-worth / Companies like Nike ‘Just do it’ appeal to this need
Need for novelty / People seek variety and difference / The many flavours available in MasterFoods’ marinades
External motive / Description / Example
Need for social expression / Express one’s identity to others / Purchase of status symbols
Need for ego-defence / To defend our own identity / Purchase the right brand of drink at a night club so we appear cool
Need for assertion / Engage in those activities that increase our self-worth and esteem in front of others / Slogans such as ‘be what you want to be’ appeal to these needs
Need for reinforcement / Act in a certain way because we are rewarded for doing so / Samples and prizes by marketers encourage consumers to buy promoted brands
Need for affiliation / Develop mutually satisfying relationships and be accepted by others / ‘You ought to be congratulated’—Meadow Lea
Need for modelling / Our desire to be like others or be a model role for others / Use of celebrities in ads

Refer to Exercises below for reinforcement.


4. Motivational roles

Consumer reasons for purchase can be categorised into ‘functionally oriented’ or ‘self-expressive’.

Functional needs are practical needs based on the utility offered by the product. Self-expressive needs are based on self-concept and concern for social image. Functional benefits are taken for granted by people who buy products for expressive reasons.

Certain product categories focus more on expressive needs than functional needs. Surf clothing brands like Rip Curl and Billabong focus more on self-image. Yet Big W and Best & Less consider the more functional use of their products. All brands offer similar utility or function, but consumers are happy to pay the price for what they consider ‘style’ or ‘fashion’.

5. Motivation and organisational buying

Organisations are considered ‘rational’ in their purchasing decisions. However, a range of factors influence level of satisfaction and motivation for organisations. Figure 8.3 (text, p. 232) illustrates the components of organisational needs.

The ‘must-haves’ relate to those factors that the customer sees as essential to a transaction. These factors are based on quality and reliability. All suppliers in their evoked set meet these criteria. The ‘delighters’ are the characteristics that enhance the buyer’s satisfaction. The more satisfied a customer, the more chance of a repeat purchase. These are the attributes sellers must focus on when developing strategies for organisational buyers.

There are several categories of buyer needs in business markets:

Situational needs

Needs unique to the particular buying situation, such as an urgent order or short-term storage space.

Functional needs

Functions, benefits and attributes required for a purchase. The essential buying criteria and minimum requirements that must be met.

Social needs

Interrelationships between seller and buyer are important here. As are the factors that might affect the buyer or organisation’s standing in the environment.

Knowledge needs

This involves training and development support offered by the seller.

Table 8.2 (text, p. 233) provides an example of assessing a business buyer’s needs. Refer to the Interactive Exercise below to assess student understanding.

6. Fear appeals

Fear can be an effective (and not so effective) tool for advertisers to consider. A ‘fear’ appeal is more effective when there is a large chance of serious consequences actually happening if behaviour doesn’t change or a particular purchase is not made. Fear doesn’t have to relate to physical harm, but in most cases it will.

7. Motivational conflict

Consumers have many motives that drive their behaviour. So what happens when conflicting motives are working to satisfy their needs—with different outcomes? For example, what happens when a consumer is hungry, they want something quick and not so healthy, but they know they shouldn’t have fatty or fried foods? This conflict is called motivational conflict and causes us to take action to reduce this conflict.