Name:
chapteR 16: bUILDING ARGUMENTS
QUESTIONING ASSUMPTIONS
Definition:
A social assumption is a statement which most people accept as true. A social assumption may or may not be true based on the conclusions of tests and may or may not have a strong factual basis. Indeed, a social assumption may be based on fact, but it is often the case that many people accept the statement for incorrect reasons.
Directions: Read the following social assumptions. Brainstorm at least two or three alternative explanations for each. [Remember, true brainstorming allows even far-fetched ideas to make the list.] Then, choose the explanation you think is the most realistic. When you are finished, come up with your own social assumptions and alternative explanations.
Class Example:
Social Assumption: Most scientists are men.
Example Explanation: Men are better scientists.
Other Alternative Explanations:
1. Social Assumption: Fast food leads to obesity.
Alternative Explanations:
2. Social Assumption: Watching television leads to violent actions.
Alternative Explanations:
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chapteR 16: bUILDING ARGUMENTS
QUESTIONING ASSUMPTIONS
3. Social Assumption: Women over 30 conceive twins more often than younger women.
Alternative Explanations:
4. Social Assumption: You get what you pay for.
Alternative Explanations:
Other Ideas...
Social Assumption:
Alternative Explanations:
Social Assumption:
Alternative Explanations:
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chapteR 16: bUILDING ARGUMENTS
Evidence CREDIBILITY
Directions:
A. Answer the following questions.
1. Identify the claim to be supported by evidence:
2. What type of evidence will you use to support the claim (example, statistics, testimony)? Is this the most appropriate means of supporting this claim? Is this evidence appropriate for this audience?
3. Identify the author(s) of the evidence and develop a brief statement of credibility. Is the person(s) an expert on the subject? Is the person(s) reasonably objective? List the credentials of the author(s).
4. Identify the date of publication. Is this evidence timely? Does it account for what is currently happening in the status quo?
5. Where was the information published? Is this a credible source? Can you identify source bias?
B. Based on the answers to the questions, would you use this evidence? If no, explain the flaws. If so, write a paragraph description that includes the claim and evidence as well as the information you would use to create an oral citation (author, credibility of author, date of publication, source information). This paragraph is what you will actually say in your speech.
Name:
chapteR 16: bUILDING ARGUMENTS
Evidence CREDIBILITY
Directions:
A. Answer the following questions.
1. Identify the claim to be supported by evidence:
2. What type of evidence will you use to support the claim (example, statistics, testimony)? Is this the most appropriate means of supporting this claim? Is this evidence appropriate for this audience?
3. Identify the author(s) of the evidence and develop a brief statement of credibility. Is the person(s) an expert on the subject? Is the person(s) reasonably objective? List the credentials of the author(s).
4. Identify the date of publication. Is this evidence timely? Does it account for what is currently happening in the status quo?
5. Where was the information published? Is this a credible source? Can you identify source bias?
B. Based on the answers to the questions, would you use this evidence? If no, explain the flaws. If so, write a paragraph description that includes the claim and evidence as well as the information you would use to create an oral citation (author, credibility of author, date of publication, source information). This paragraph is what you will actually say in your speech.
Name:
chapteR 16: bUILDING ARGUMENTS
Evidence CREDIBILITY
Directions:
A. Answer the following questions.
1. Identify the claim to be supported by evidence:
2. What type of evidence will you use to support the claim (example, statistics, testimony)? Is this the most appropriate means of supporting this claim? Is this evidence appropriate for this audience?
3. Identify the author(s) of the evidence and develop a brief statement of credibility. Is the person(s) an expert on the subject? Is the person(s) reasonably objective? List the credentials of the author(s).
4. Identify the date of publication. Is this evidence timely? Does it account for what is currently happening in the status quo?
5. Where was the information published? Is this a credible source? Can you identify source bias?
B. Based on the answers to the questions, would you use this evidence? If no, explain the flaws. If so, write a paragraph description that includes the claim and evidence as well as the information you would use to create an oral citation (author, credibility of author, date of publication, source information). This paragraph is what you will actually say in your speech.
Name:
chapteR 16: bUILDING ARGUMENTS
TESTING THE ARGUMENT
Directions: Below there is sample argument text from a speech on Low-Carbohydrate Diets followed by questions. Read the argument text, then answer the questions to test the argument.
Sample Argument Text: Low-Carbohydrate Diets
Despite what the media tells you, low-carbohydrate diets should not be used (CLAIM). Dieters are looking for a way to improve their health, when in fact low-carbohydrate diets lead to many undesirable effects (WARRANT).
These diets produce an abundance of medical problems that stem from the drastically reduced daily intake of carbohydrates. Stated on the Fad Diets: Low Carbohydrate Diet Summaries Web site provided by the Registered Dietitians at the University of Michigan Cardiovascular Center (EVIDENCE CREDIBILITY STATEMENT) and accessed November 10, 2004, potential long-term health concerns caused by low-carb diets include “bone loss, kidney stress, and increased risk of some cancers.” Lack of vitamins, osteoporosis, and heart disease are also common side effects (EVIDENCE).
It is true that some doctors suggest temporary low-carbohydrate diets. In fact, there is an abundance of literature, some even written by Dr. Atkins himself, claiming that the Atkins diet and other low-carb diets are safe and effective (REBUTTAL).
These arguments about safety leave out important facts. It must be recognized that even if an individual loses weight, that person may be damaging his or her long-term health even further. For instance, pounds may be traded for higher cholesterol levels. According to Alleged Atkins Diet Victim Files Suit Web site filed by James Green and Daniel Kinburn (EVIDENCE CREDIBILITY STATEMENT) and accessed November 18, 2004, “…Two recent studies funded by the Atkins Center for Complementary Medicine showed that approximately 30 percent of participants had increased LDL (“bad”) cholesterol” (EVIDENCE).
There are rare occasions when doctors and their patients weigh the costs and decide that the negative health concerns associated with low-carb dieting are more favorable than the side effects of obesity (QUALIFIER).
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chapteR 16: bUILDING ARGUMENTS
TESTING THE ARGUMENT, CONT.
In order to effectively critique an argument, you must ask the right questions.
What reasons or evidence are offered to support the position?
If there are reasons/evidence offered, the position can be called the author’s conclusion, and we can ask the following questions:
Are the reasons/evidence solid and believable, or is there reason to doubt them?
Do the reasons connect tightly to the conclusion, or are there holes in the logic? (e.g., Are all the reasons truly relevant?)
Does the argument exhibit any recognizable patterns of bad reasoning (fallacies)?
What objections might be made to the argument? If they are worthy of discussion, did the speaker reply adequately to them?
Have significant considerations been left out by the author?
Would a different position or conclusion have been more reasonable? If so, where did the speaker go wrong?
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chapteR 16: bUILDING ARGUMENTS
TESTING THE ARGUMENT
Applying Toulmin’s Argument Model
Directions: Develop an argument using this model. Write down each element of the argument as presented here and then put it together in a short paragraph.
1. CLAIM – statement, point you are trying to make, assertion.
2. EVIDENCE (Supporting Material) – proof you use to substantiate the claim (can take several forms: statistics, analogies, facts, examples, and testimony).
3. WARRANT – explains how the evidence substantiates your point and demonstrates that making the mental leap from one to another is rational.
4. EVIDENCE CREDIBILITY– brief statements that establish the quality of the information you are using to support your ideas.
5. QUALIFIER – admits exceptions, demonstrates that argumentation is not an exact science and that issues are rarely discussible in absolute terms.
6. REBUTTAL – requires the speaker to anticipate the counterarguments and answer them ahead of time and attacks them directly.
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chapteR 16: bUILDING ARGUMENTS
REFUTING COUNTERARGUMENTS
Before the activity:
Write your top two topics and thesis statements for your persuasive speech. Your thesis statement should be written as a fact, value, or policy claim.
Topic:
Thesis Statement:
Topic:
Thesis Statement:
During the activity:
1. Each speaker will share his/her 1st choice topic and thesis statement.
2. The class audience will raise their hands if they agree, disagree, or are neutral to the thesis statement.
3. If everyone agrees or disagrees with the thesis statement, the speaker will either need to re-word the statement or offer his/her second choice topic. The goal is for the majority of the audience to be neutral and/or some in disagreement.
4. After neutrality and disagreement have been established, audience members will pose their objections. It is NOT time for the speaker to disagree, just simply record the objections. Each speaker should have at least three objections in writing.
Name of Student presenting Objection:
Objection:
Name of Student presenting Objection:
Objection:
Name:
chapteR 16: bUILDING ARGUMENTS
REFUTING COUNTERARGUMENTS
Name of Student presenting Objection:
Objection:
Name of Student presenting Objection:
Objection:
After the activity:
1. Make a copy of the objections you will use for your instructor.
2. Incorporate responses for at least three objections in your persuasive speech. You should address the student who presented the objections by name. For example: "As Katie questioned..." or "Jon asked about..." or "...this is something that Liz, too, wondered about, but...."
3. Use evidence to support your preemptive arguments. You will be graded on how well the preemptive arguments are incorporated and supported.
1. Preemptive Argument:
Evidence:
2. Preemptive Argument:
Evidence:
3. Preemptive Argument:
Evidence: