1 Fig. 1 shows the average depth of regolith (weathered rock) for areas with
different climate and vegetation.
(a) Which vegetation area has both the greatest depth of regolith (weathered
rock) and the highest precipitation? [1]
TropicalForest
(b) What is meant by the term basal surface of weathering? [3]
The maximum depth to which weathering penetrates (usually in the context of
deep chemical weathering). It thus marks the boundary between weathered and
unweathered rock.
(c) Explain how temperatures and precipitation can influence the types of
weathering processes that produce the depth of weathered material shown
in Fig. 2. [6]
Temperature and precipitation control the type and speed of weathering
processes. Thus water is required for freeze thaw as well as temperatures that
fluctuate around freezing. Chemical weathering is most effective in areas of high
ppt and temperatures which speed up the process. Areas shown on the diagram
with little ppt (Tundra and deserts) have processes that are slow and ineffective.
It is not necessary for candidates to develop all weathering processes nor are
deep weathering and inselbergs etc. necessary. They can, however, be utilised
to illustrate the role of temperature and ppt as can deep regoliths in the tropics.
2 Fig. 2 shows some factors affecting processes on a slope.
(a) Name and briefly describe the two slope profiles marked A and B on Fig. 3. [4]
A is free face or cliff slope where angles are steep and bare rock faces are likely to be found.
B is debris or concave slope. Sometimes straight or concave in shape where weathered
material accumulates.
(b) Explain how the factors shown in the diagram can affect the shape of the slope. [6]
Climate acts as an overall influence in that it affects the type and rate of weathering and
transportational processes. Vegetation can affect slopes as the root systems stabilise slopes
and to some degree protect from weathering. Weathering of material will be most pronounced
on bare surfaces under suitable weather conditions and will lead to the transport of material
down slope. River action can remove weathered material and at times undercut the slope.
3 Fig. 3 shows the flows and stores of water associated with a river channel and its
adjoining slopes.
(a) Identify the flows marked A and B on Fig. 1. [2]
A is surface (overland) flow
B is base (groundwater) flow
(b) Briefly describe interception storage. [3]
Interception storage is the precipitation that is retained by the vegetation on leaves. trunks,
branches stems etc. Some will be evaporated back whilst the progress of moisture to the
surface will be slowed.
(c) Using Fig. 1, explain how water from surface storage reaches groundwater storage. [5]
Water from surface storage (puddles etc.) will proceed as overland (surface) flow in
circumstances where precipitation intensity exceeds infiltration capacity. Otherwise water will
be infiltrated that is taken into the surface level of the soil to form soil moisture storage where
water is held within the interstices of the soil. Under gravity water will flow both downslope to
the channel via throughflow whilst the rest will percolate downwards through the soil and
cracks and joints within the bedrock to form a level of saturated rock which is groundwater
storage (or the water table).
Good answers will be those distinguishing between the processes of infiltration and
percolation.
[Total: 10
4 Fig. 4 shows the density of population by region for Chile, an LEDC in Latin America, in
2002.
(a) Name one region where a density of over 79.9 persons per square kilometre was
recorded. [1]
Valparaiso or Santiago
(b) Describe the overall pattern of population density within Chile shown in Fig. 4. [4]
Likely to be presented either as a gradient from the N rising towards Valparaiso/Santiago and
falling to S, or as a core-periphery pattern from the central high density regions out to N and S.
Reserve 1 for use of names/data/anomalies from Fig. 4.
A full response observes some anomalies or element of complexity
e.g. mixed densities 20-39.9 and 40-79.9 S of Santiago, or the leap from Coquimbo’s 10-19.9
to Valparaiso’s over 79.9.
(c) Using examples, explain why population density is a poor indicator of overpopulation.
[5]
Candidates are not expected to have knowledge of Chile but could use it for the examples, if,for instance, they recognise the implications of Atacama or know that 70% of Chile’s land areais mountain and desert.
The key to a successful response is that overpopulation is the number of people on an area judged relative to resources (and at a given level of technology). By contrast, populationdensity is an absolute figure.
It is therefore possible for two places, such as a CBD in an MEDC city and a squatter
settlement in an LEDC urban fringe to have the same population density but for one to be overpopulated and the other not. Classically this was seen by standard of living (level andtrend), but to this today it is helpful to add depletion of resource base and environmentaldegradation.
Suggest credit the concepts 3/2 and their application/examples 2/3.
5 Table 1 shows average death rates for the world and for world regions in 2001.
(a) Give the meaning of the term death rate. [2]
[crude] death rate is: the number of deaths, in a year, per 1000 (people).
Credit 1 element 0, 2 elements 1, all 3 elements 2
(b) Suggest reasons why the average death rate for MEDCs is surprisingly
higher than the death rate for LEDCs in Table 1. [3]
Apparently surprising but crude death rate takes no account of the age
structure of the populations. The ageing of the populations of MEDCs is -a
demographic characteristic of which candidates should be aware, with its
implications for ‘Stage 5’ countries in terms of the demographic transition
model.
Whilst an explanation of age structure alone could achieve full marks, credit
can be given for an awareness of factors affecting MEDC mortality rates
such as the prevalence of cancers and cardiovascular diseases, or the
implications of stress, diet, lack of exercise and obesity on health. If only
these factors are considered, max. 2.
(b) Explain why the average death rate for Africa was so high (14 per 1000). [5]
An explanation may include factors by their presence e.g. widespread poverty or
the prevalence of HIV/AIDS and by their absence e.g. lack of a clean water
supply or inadequate delivery of health systems.
Good marks (4-5) for explanations which build up a broader picture of interactive
factors in at least two dimensions (social, economic, environmental, political).
Other indicators of quality may be the use of named countries or the recognition
of specific elements within DR e.g. IMR.
Credit two data issues if raised: DR is an average figure, obscuring that in some
African nations DR is better controlled and that some DR values were far higher
than 14 per 1000; the potential contribution of data inaccuracy and problems of
data collection.
7a (i) Define the terms ‘crystal growth’ and ‘pressure release’ as they apply to
weathering. [4]
Salt crystals grow just beneath a rock surface due to evaporation or where
moisture lingers.
‘Pressure release’ of rocks formed under pressure due to the removal of
overburden by erosion.
(ii) Describe the effects that crystal growth and pressure release have upon
rocks. [3]
Crystal growth leads to stresses within the rock, producing surface scaling
(large scale weathering pits and tafoni).
Pressure release leads to tensional stresses at right angles to the surface,
leading to sheet jointing and possibly large scale exfoliation.
(b) Explain how chemical weathering processes act upon either granite or
limestone rocks. [8]
Granite rocks are particularly prone to hydrolysis, leading to the weathering of
the feldspar. Kaolinite is produced (clay minerals) and other materials
removed in solution A’s granite is well jointed. These areas are vulnerable
both on the surface and at depth – hence tors etc.
Limestone is most susceptible to carbonation, whereby calcium carbonate is
changed to calcium bicarbonate by acidulated rainwater. The bicarbonate is
then removed in solution.
Many will illustrate these processes by reference to landforms (inselbergs, tors
etc. or caves, pavements, dolines in the case of limestone). This is
acceptable, but for full marks there must be a clear exposition of chemical
weathering processes.
(c) Describe and explain the differences between convergent and divergent
plate margins. [10]
Much can be achieved by good annotated diagrams of sea floor spreading
divergent margins and subduction at convergent margins. Diagrams and
explanations should include mid-ocean ridges, volcanic islands, island arcs,
ocean trenches and some fold mountains as well as some explanation in
terms of magma circulation, frictional melting in subduction etc. Give up to 6
marks for good diagrams.
[Total for Question 8: 25]
Rocks and weathering
8 (a) (i) Define the terms flow and heave as they apply to mass movements. [4]
Flow is the movement of materials downslope under the influence of gravity.
Heave involves the raising of particles at right angles to the slope followed by
vertical settling.
(ii) Describe a rock slide. [3]
Rock slides occur on unstable slopes of high relief. The effects of bedding
planes and joint planes are important. This allows rocks to fragment and
provide a slippage plane.
(b) Using a diagram show how volcanic activity can be associated with a plate
margin. [8]
Constructive or destructive margins could be used to illustrate volcanic activities
or both. Thus on sea floor spreading and the up-welling of magma allows the
development of island volcanoes such as Surtsea, the Azores, Ascension Island
etc. Destructive margins produce rising magma from the melted margins to
produce island arcs or volcanic activity associated with fold mountains. Marks
could be earned by well annotated diagrams
(c) Explain how human activity can influence weathering of rocks and mass movement processes. [10]
It is important that a balanced answer contains information both about weathering and mass movement processes. A candidate should also differentiate between activities that promote and also inhibit the two processes.
Candidates will probably
L3 Demonstrate a good understanding of several processes, assess how these processes are influenced both positively and negatively by human activities. (8-10)
L2 Provide a sound but limited assessment of several factors, but may be a little
vague n processes and concentrate on either promoting or inhibiting factors. (5-7)
L1 Be unable to get beyond very general statements of factors and processes. Explanation will be seriously limited or absent. (0-4)
Population change
9 (a) Give the meaning of the terms birth rate and fertility rate. (7)
birth rate is the number of children/babies born (live) 1
per 1000 people or as a % of the total population 1
per year or in a given year 1
whereas - the more demanding - fertility rate is
the average 1 number of children 1
each woman 1
of child bearing age (usually 15-50) 1 will bear
(b) Using examples, identify and explain the links between fertility rate and
education. (8)
The main observed relationship is the inverse one that as education
increases (years of schooling, level of schooling and educational attainment)
fertility decreases. Most candidates will associate this with women but the
astute may observe the link to men's education.
education seems to affect fertility in a number of ways, including,
- raising the status of and empowering women
- challenging traditional views of family size
- raising social and economic aspirations
- bringing understanding of the need for and means of birth control
- other
The examples may be generic or located.
Suggest credit links up to 3 marks each, such that a full answer consists of
at least three developed points (comprehensiveness
not needed for this modest mark allocation).
(c) To what extent have attempts to reduce the birth rate been successful
in one country you have studied? (10)
A minor classic and straightforward. China is likely but any country valid. For
good reward, success should be seen both in terms of a drop in birth rate
(with data support, ideally) and in some other effect (e.g. overpopulation
avoided? food supply adequate? standards of living rising?).
Good assessment may bring out differentials e.g. spatial (rural/urban,
regional), socio-economic (income groups, minorities) and not treat the
country as uniform.
Relative success/failure is important, what didn't work well and perhaps
suggesting reasons why this was the case.
Candidates will probably:
L3 Structure the whole answer as an assessment, cover two or more
attempts in some detail, show good understanding of the issues
involve and a perceptive overall perspective. [8-10]
L2 Make a sound response which remains limited either because it
covers only one attempt, the understanding is moderate or because
the assessment is partial and perhaps "tacked on" to a descriptive
core. [5-7]
L1 Produce an answer which is descriptive in character and which may
have little or no assessment. Show some knowledge of attempts to
reduce birth rates but with little detail or produce a general response of
the "e.g. Africa" sort. Fragmentary and note-form answers remain in
this level. [0-4]
Total 25
10 (a) Give the meaning of the term underpopulation and describe one located
example of underpopulation. [7]
For the term 4, underpopulation is the situation where there are,
- too few/not enough people 1;
- to make full use of the resources 1;
- at a given level of technology 1 (discriminator);
- some expression of the dynamic relationship e.g. the potential for immigration,
or that more people would produce a rise in living standards 1.
For the description of an example 3, these are classically large areas such as
Canada or Australia. A simple description links some population and resource
detail, for instance the Stage 4 dynamic and encouragement of immigration for
those with skills/professions; vast mineral resources etc. Local examples may be
used e.g. of depopulated rural areas in LEDCs where agricultural output has
fallen, land has been abandoned etc. due to rural-urban migration, the impact of
catastrophe or AlDs.
(b) Explain why countries may want to reach optimum population.
This is the theoretical ideal relationship between population and resources. It is
the balanced or equilibrium position where optimum population achieves optimal
resource usage and economic return and the highest GDP per person and living
standards for everyone in a society.
A simple diagram may help.
It also overcomes the difficulties of underpopulation and unfulfilled potential whilst
avoiding the problems and suffering of overpopulation. As such migration may
be encouraged to underpopulated areas whilst anti-natalist policies may be
pursued in overpopulated countries.
However there is legitimate debate as to whether optimum population exists in
the classic manner as a point in time/absolute number of people. It is also seen
as subjective as a government’s view of what is optimum may not be that of the
people’s.
Examples are not expressly asked for but may assist the explanation and are
therefore creditable, Singapore? the UK?
Suggest credit basic understanding of the term 3 and explanation 5.
(c) In the relationship between population and resources to what extent should
a resource base be seen as changeable rather than fixed?
To a large extent as mineral resources may be discovered, energy generated
in new ways and food supplies increased by innovation (Boserup). That said
there are certain aspects of a resource base which are effectively fixed e.g. thin
or stony soils, mountainous terrain or lack of land area. Even Malthus allowed for
theoretical arithmetic increase in food supplies in his Essay.
Candidates will probably:
L3 Make a perceptive assessment of resource base, recognising elements of
dynamism and relative fixedness, drawing on both theory and examples in
a clear consideration of extent. [8-10]
L2 Provide a limited assessment, which, while showing understanding of some
aspects of a resource base lacks development or detailed exemplar
support. [5-7]
LI Be unable to develop this convincingly, lacking the understanding, the skills
in assessment (or time?) Show some knowledge of resources. [0-4]
Total: 25
11 (a) (i) Give the meaning of the term international migration.
the movement of population/people [1]
across national borders or from country to country [1]
for more than one year (likely to be the discriminator) [1]
(ii) Describe briefly the character of one example of international migration you
have studied. [4]
Example must fall within above definition e.g. not tourism or visits.
Mark on impression, looking for conceptual background e.g. forced/voluntary, and
detail (where: source, destination; who: scale, people; why: push/pull factors; when:
date, duration, residence/return; how: means, mode).
(b) What are the main political barriers to international migration? [max. 5]
They may be to emigration (exit) e.g. China, North Korea or to immigration (entry) e.g. the
USA and the famous – to candidates – green card.
They may be formal (visas, permits, EU citizenship) or general e.g. the nature of the
regime, incidence of civil war, persecution of minorities, enmity between governments, the
security situation etc.
A full answer considers more than one type of barrier and offers exemplar support. For a
one barrier response (probably visas).
(c) To what extent do you agree that economic migration is usually beneficial to both sending and receiving countries?
economic migration relates to employment, the international labour market and the
prospect of betterment. Good assessment should get at ‘usually’.
sending countries may benefit (reduction in unemployment, remittances, taxes,
enhanced skills on return) or be disadvantaged (brain drain, brawn drain, loss of
entrepreneurs and leaders, investment in education “lost” etc.)
receiving countries may benefit (filling job vacancies unattractive to nationals e.g.
Caribbean migration to UK postwar, German gastarbeiter; gaining skills and perspectives
e.g. IT consultants, doctors) or suffer (flooding job market, EU labour circulation and
benefit applications, perception of putting locals out of a job etc.).
Candidates will probably:
L3 Provide a good assessment, which is quite balanced sending/receiving and
benefit/disadvantage. Have a strong conceptual understanding of economic
migration and a variety of examples to support their work. [8 - 10]
L2 Demonstrate suitable understanding of some aspect or aspects of the issue, show
knowledge of some example(s), make a partial assessment. Responses which cover
only sending or receiving countries or only benefit (or cost) remain in this level. [5 - 7]
L1 Make an answer which is essentially descriptive rather than evaluative. Show limited
or wrong understanding of economic migration and little knowledge of examples.
Fragmentary and note-form responses remain in L1. [0 - 4]
[Total: 25]