Title / 6. Reading - 1929-35 Rise of Aggressive Forces
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Author / M G Callagher
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Focus Questions

  1. What is the background to Japanese expansionist policy?
  1. Why did the League of Nations fail to stop Japanese expansion into Manchuria?
  1. Why did the Disarmament Conference fail in 1932?
  1. What early moves did Hitler make to strengthen Germany militarily?
  1. How was Collective Security strengthened over this period?

Japanese Aggression

<caption>Japanese aggression will break several Treaties and Agreements</caption>

China in the early 20th Century

China had become a very weak and backward country by the end of the 19th Century
Open Door Policy
In 1895 China was defeated in the Sino-Japanese war. They lost Taiwan to Japan. This resulted in other imperial powers scrambling to take a piece of China.
In 1899 the USA promoted an Open Door Policy
  • To stop the carving up of China and to preserve the centuries old Qing Dynasty.
  • It also aimed to ensure the equality of opportunity for foreigners to engage in trade and business with China.
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<caption>Cartoon: “The Start for the China Cup” – Imperial powers start the race to carve-up China</caption>

Fall of Qing Dynasty

  • In 1911 there was a revolution which resulted in the overthrow of the weakened Qing Dynasty.
  • From 1912-27 the country endured the Warlord Era where local warlords fought each other for control of their territories.
  • By 1928 the Nationalists (GMD) had taken control of most of China and ruled until 1937. However they were constantly fighting with the banned Chinese Communist Party in an attempt to wipe them out.

Japanese Ambitions in Asia

In 1904-5, Japan wins the Russo-Japanese War
In 1910, Japan occupied the Korean peninsula
In 1915, the 21 Demands were presented to China
  • Acceptance of these would have made China a virtual protectorate of Japan.
  • Britain persuaded Japan to back down.
In 1919 Japan felt cheated by the Paris Peace Conference.
  • Like Italy, Japan received little territory for their help in the war.
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<caption>Foreign inroads into China</caption>

Japanese Foreign Policy

Economic hardship affected the Japanese people after 1920.
Japan suffered from:
  • Overpopulation.
  • A lack of raw materials.
  • And later the Depression seriously weakened the Japanese economy.
The Japanese army saw Manchuria (the Northeast territory of China) as the solution to internal problems.
  • Manchuria was rich in raw materials such as bauxite and iron ore.
  • New markets could be established.
  • Manchuria could provide a location for population resettlement.
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<caption>Japanese Imperial Flag</caption>

Invasion of Manchuria 1931

On 18 September 1931, Japanese troops occupied Mukden
  • In response to a alleged Chinese attack on the railway.
  • The Japanese Government was not told of the actions of the military.
  • Japanese forces swiftly occupied Manchuria.
  • In 1932, Japan annexed Manchuria.
A puppet state of Manchukuo was established.
  • HenryPu-Yi, the last Emperor of the Qing Dynasty was created Emperor.
  • The military success strengthened the control the militarists were gaining in the oligarchy that governed Japan during the 1930s.
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League of Nations Investigates

Lytton Commission
China appealed to the League of Nations to condemn Japan as the aggressor.
The League sent a commission to investigate, headed by Lord Lytton.
The Lytton Commission condemned Japan as the aggressor, Oct 1932.
No Sanctions Applied to Japan
Neither economic nor military sanctions were applied to Japan
  • The Great Depression had already damaged trade between nations and nobody wanted to damage it further by refusing to trade with Japan.
  • Even the most powerful members of the League doubted whether they could enforce sanctions
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<caption>“Uneasy Street” by DavidLow, 9 Jan 1933</caption>

Japan Leaves the League of Nations

Japan ignores the League
Japanignored the condemnation by the League of Nations report. It continued its occupation of Manchuria and left the League in 1933.
League discredited
The Manchuria affair damaged the reputation of the League of Nations. One of its leading members had gone to war with another member and the League had failed to stop it.
By the end of the affair in 1933, even the League’s strongest supporters had doubts about its ability to maintain world peace. /
<caption>“The Doormat” by DavidLow, 19 Jan 1933</caption>

Disarmament Conference, 1932

Background to the Disarmament Conference

  • Both the League Covenant and the Fourteen Points sought general disarmament.
  • In 1925 the LON set up a preparatory commission to determine what arms should be limited and how this could be accomplished.
  • By1931 several points of agreement had been reached and a draft for discussion at a planned Disarmament Conference was drawn up.
  • The Disarmament Conference was planned to start in Geneva (Switzerland) in February 1932, and was to be attended by League of Nations members, as well as by the United States and the Soviet Union.

Failure of Disarmament

In 1932, a Disarmament Conference was held at Geneva.
It initially met for 5 months though it would continue through until May 1934.
Germany was given the right to participate in the conference with equal status as other members
The Conferences Fails
  1. Disagreements over the definition of categories of war materials, which had obstructed the progress of the preparatory commission, continued to hinder the conference.
  2. Intent on maintaining its security against Germany, France was particularly reluctant to agree to any type of military limitation.
  3. Germany insisted that other countries should disarm to the level of Germany. Most countries opposed this idea.
The Conference eventually ended in a deadlock. /
<caption>“The conference excuses itself” by DavidLow, 23rd May 1934</caption>

German Rearmament

The Disarmament Conference was in adjournment from June to October, 1933.When it reassembled, Germany was now under the total control of AdolfHitler and already secretly preparing to rearm.

The failure to agree on disarmament provided Hitler with the excuse to:

  • Leave the Conference in October 1933.
  • Take Germany out of the League of Nations.

Hitler declares rearmament in defiance of Versailles, March 1935.

  • It was difficult to argue that Germany should stay disarmed and accept inferior status when everyone else was armed.

Hitler’s reassuring diplomacy.

  • Hitler suggests limitations on armaments.Hitler often sought the higher moral ground.
  • Hitleralso announces a ten year non-aggression pact with Poland.Poland probably wondered why he felt the need to do this.

Attempted Anschluss (German & Austrian Unification)

Fifth Column: A clandestine subversive organisation working within a country to further an invading enemy's military and political aims.
It will become Hitler’s regular tactic to use fifth columnists to weaken and disrupt other countries and to provide an excuse for Germany to invade.
Nazi sympathisers in Austriariot and demand union with Germany
  • They are banned by Austrian Chancellor, Dollfuss.
  • They assassinate Dollfuss and demand that Hitlertakes over.
Mussolini (Italy) reacts with force
  • There is a storm of international protest at this blatant defiance of the Treaty of Versailles.
  • Mussolini had been a friend of the assassinated Austrian leader.
  • Mussolini sends Italian troops to the Austrian border.
  • Hitler backs down straight away and quietens the Austrian Nazis.
  • Germany is not yet strong enough for a confrontation.
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<caption>Map of Central Europe</caption>

Hitler presses on faster with rearmament

German Rearmament revealed
Germany had been secretly rearming since 1933. In 1935 Hitler decided that secrecy was no longer necessary:
  • The existence of a Luftwaffe (Air Force) is announced. By then it had 2500 aircraft.
  • The army was now 300,000 strong. Already more than the 100,000 imposed at the Treaty of Versailles.
The British make a secret agreement for German naval rearmament:
  • It is agreed that the German navy is to remain at 35% of British strength.
  • Francewas annoyed at not being consulted.
At the same time Hitler redoubled his claims of peaceful intentions
He declares his willingness to accept abolition of certain categories of armaments such as heavy tanks, bombers etc. However Germany didn’t yet have any significant numbers of these weapons anyway. /
<caption>The Luftwaffe (German Air Force) would become an important cog in the future German war machine</caption>

German Conscription Announced

Hitler announced compulsory military service in 1935.

This alarmed the other European powers as it was an unusual move for peacetime. However, they took no military action.

A German propaganda postcard issued in 1935 shortly after the introduction of compulsory military service

Collective Security Strengthened

Fears over German re-armament and its display of aggression caused Britain and France to strengthen Collective Security arrangements.

USSR drawn into League, 1934

The USSR was encouraged to join the League of Nations to give it strength against any moves by Hitler in the East.

Stresa Front, 1935

  • The Stresa Front was formed by Britain, France and Italy. It was an agreement to counter Hitler’s moves (rearmament and attempted expansion through Anschluss) and to contain him.
  • Italy’s decisiveness over the Anschluss attempt had offered encouragement to BritainFrance. Italywas seen as vital to containing Nazi Germany.
  • It was also important to BritainandFranceto keep Italy away from a possible union with Germany.

However, the Stresa Front helped to undermine the League of Nations because it became an alternative option.Britain and France preferred to put their future security hopes in military agreements rather than rely solely on the discredited world body.

Summary

Japan had a policy of expansion into Asia:

  • having already annexed Taiwan and Korea.
  • having invaded Manchuria in 1931.

The response of the League of Nations was weak and ineffective:

  • The Lytton Commission condemned Japan as the aggressor
  • No sanctions were applied against Japan
  • Japanignored the Commission report and left the League.

The Failure of the Disarmament Conference led to:

  • An excuse for Germany to rearm.
  • No chance for any future disarmament
  • Germanyleaving the League.

The failed attempt at Anschluss of 1934 led to:

  • The creation of the StresaFront.
  • The Soviet Union invited to join the League.
  • Hitler rearming Germany with more urgency.