Title / 4. Reading - 1924-29 An Era of Hope
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Objectives
Author / M G Callagher
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Focus Questions

  1. What were the economic events that helped to lead to a period of stability and peace in Europe over the late 1920’s?
  1. What Treaties and Military Agreements were made that led to a spirit of cooperation and hope for sustained peace over the 1920’s?
  1. What were the basic underlying problems which could dismantle the spirit of cooperation and harmony of the late 1920’s?

Loan-based peace and prosperity 1924-29

Gustav Stresemann becomes the new Chancellor of Germany in August 1923
He quickly moved to settle the Ruhr crisis:
  • Stresemann calls off the Strikes.
  • He agrees to the fulfilment of reparations to the French
The French are left with no option but to withdraw their troops /
<caption>GustavStresemann, Chancellor of Germany (he later becomes Foreign Minister)</caption>

Dawes Plan, 1924

An influential American Colonel Dawes came up with a plan to help with Germany’s reparations payment problem:

  • American loan money was provided to Germany.
  • This loan money was used by Germany to pay reparations to France and Britain.
  • France and Britain then used this money to pay their war debts to the USA

It became known as a money merry-go-round

However it worked in that it took pressure off the recovering European economies.

The Dawes Money Merry-Go-Round

Prosperity

Over the second half of the 1920’s prosperity grew and jobs increased
It became an era of hope producing new fashions, radios, cars and credit. It was the Jazz age
Pacifism (anti-war attitudes) also grew
Grudges and political violence fell into the background
  • Germans forgot about their resentment over the harsh treatment at Versailles FOR NOW
  • Nazi Party support consequently dropped
/
<caption>New and exciting times with the age of Jazz</caption>

Young Plan, 1929

The Young Plan seemed to symbolise further reconciliation

German reparations were reduced from £6.6 to £2 billion

The International Financial System under the Dawes Plan and Young Plan, 1924-30

Treaty of Locarno (Switzerland), 1925

The Treaty of Locarno was proposed by GustavStresemann, now German Foreign Minister.
British Foreign Secretary AustinChamberlain acted as a negotiator between Briand (French Minister) & Stresemann (German Chancellor)
The main purpose was to bring about reconciliation between Franceand Germany /
Chamberlain /
Briand

Main Treaty agreements

1. The French/German/Belgium borders were guaranteed

  • This was the first time that Germany officially recognised these borders
  • They had been the subject of dispute for many decades
  • BritainItaly agreed to intervene if the borders were broken by either side
  • However it overlooked the fact that Britain was presently too weak to intervene

2. Demilitarisation of the Rhinelandwas confirmed

  • Germany agreed to the future demilitarisation of the Rhineland which had been part of the Treaty of Versailles conditions
  • This was a major step for Germany as it had been very reluctant to agree to most of the terms of the Treaty which it protested was too harsh and unfair

3. Germany would join the League of Nationsin 1926

  • Germany agreed to join the League if part of the army of occupation in the Rhineland were withdrawn
  • This was a win for both sides as the army of occupation was a financial burden on the Allies. Germany joining the League brought it out of isolation and into the international community.

Concerns with the Treaty

Although the Treaty of Locarno was a major step towards reconciliation it however avoided the problem of Germany’s Eastern borders:
  • There was no similar guarantee to protect the borders of Poland, Czechoslovakia and Austria
  • The Germans were never happy with their Eastern borders. A lot of land had been lost to these countries at Versailles or there were a lot of German’s living in foreign countries.
/
<caption>Map of Europe with Germany’s Western and Eastern borders</caption>

Clasp of Reconciliation?

The French foreign minister agreed with Stresemann’s proposals and signed the Treaty. However, as Germany refused to guarantee its eastern frontiers France sought to give Poland and Czechoslovakia the security they required by signing treaties with them.
Think about what aspects of this cartoon express the doubts mentioned above? /
<caption>Clasp of Reconciliation ( David Low, 8 Sept 1925)</caption>

Kellogg-Briand Pact (Pact of Paris), 1928

Further reconciliation and pacifism (anti-war) was expressed when the Pact of Paris was negotiated between Briand (French Foreign Minister) & Kellogg (US Secretary of State).
Sixty-five countries signed the Pact and vowed not to wage war in the future.
Significantly, Germany, Japan and the USSR(Soviet Union) all signed the pact
However, no provision was included for punishing aggressor nations (nations which make war) /
<caption>USPresident CalvinCoolidge signs the Kellogg-Briand Pact in the White House</caption>

Disarmament & Military Agreement

There were a number of efforts to limit the growth of armaments. An arms race had been a significant contributing factor to the outbreak of war in 1914.

The goal of General disarmament had been one of Wilson’s 14 Points.

The task of bringing about general disarmament was handed over to the League of Nations.

League of Nations Covenant on Disarmament

Disarmament Conference

In 1925 the League of Nations set up a preparatory commission to determine what arms should be limited and how this could be accomplished.
By 1931 several points of agreement had been reached and a draft for discussion at a planned Disarmament Conference was drawn up.
The Disarmament Conference was planned to start in Geneva (Switzerland) in February 1932, and was to be attended by League of Nations members, as well as by the United States and the Soviet Union.
Germany was still bound by the arms limitations of the Treaty of Versailles. /
<caption>League of Nations Preparatory Commission on Disarmament</caption>

Washington Treaties 1922

In the aftermath of World War I, the major nations embarked upon large programmes to build new warships. To avoid a naval arms race, similar to that between Britain and Germany before World War I, the Americans proposed a treaty between the major nations to limit the number of ships (total tonnage) that each could build.
The key signatories were Britain, the United States, Japan, France, and Italy
The agreedratio of total tonnage of warships for each country was:
  • Britain 20
  • USA 20
  • Japan 12
  • France 7
  • Italy 7
Germany still had conditions on their navy imposed in the Treaty of Versailles. /
<caption>Battleship USS Arizona</caption>

Dangers below the surface

With the League of Nations, collective security, the treaties of Locarno, the Pact of Paris and the prospect of disarmament to protect it, Europe in 1929 seemed a safer place than ever.

However there were problems below the surface during this era of hope

Prosperity not soundly based

If the loans from the USA to Germany were not renewed then the whole pack of cards could tumble down.

The German economy is doing well only on the surface. Germany is in fact dancing on a volcano. If the short-term loans are called in by America, most of our economy will collapse.
(from a speech made by GustavStresemann shortly before his death on 3 October 1929.)

Can you think of something that happened on Thursday October 24th 1929 (just a few weeks after Stresemann’s statement above)that would cause Stresemann’s worst fears to be realised?

Old attitudes and fears, while calmed, still remained.

Germany

Stresemann still did not accept the Eastern frontiers and began secretly to rearm Germany

Germans still did not accept war guilt

AdolfHitler and his Nazi Party, though short on support, still existed.

France

Briand’s policy of peaceful persuasion was really aimed at making Germany accept the conditions of the Treaty of Versailles.

Italy

Fascist Italy had come about in 1922 under its leader Mussolini.

It posed a warlike threat with it emphasis on force and military power. This provided an alternative to peaceful democracy.

No support behind the League of Nations

Although Germany joined the League of Nations in 1926 there was still the problem of it lacking strong military support if a problem arose:

USA

The USA remained in isolation so that the League had no overwhelming force to draw upon.

USSR (Soviet Union)

Fear of communism plus Bolshevik attitudes to the West kept the USSR out of the necessary balance in Europe against Germany

BritainFrance

Britain had no wish to fight or commit itself to French policy

BritainFrance, keystones of the peace, were not closely united in aims or action. They were still very concerned with problems within their own countries.

Summary

Era of Hope

A combination of events in the 1920’s helped to lead to an environment of peace and hope for the future in Europe. Some of the following helped to bring about this new era:

Economic Agreements
  • Dawes Plan (1924)
  • Young Plan (1929)
Treaties
  • Treaty of Locarno (1925)
  • Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)
/ Military Agreements and Disarmament
  • Washington Naval Treaties (1922)
  • League of Nations Preparatory Commission on Disarmament (1925)
Other
  • Germany joins the League of Nations (1926)

Underlying Dangers

Despite this new hope there were some dangers below the surface which could emerge if there were to be economic pressure. This could lead to a breakdown in co-operation and a reliance on a weakened League of Nations.