World War I and the Russian Revolution
In this chapter, you’ll learn about World War I, a conflict that began in Europe but which also eventually involved the ______. New military technologies made this war more destructive than all previous conflicts in ______. The violence of the war toppled conservative monarchies in Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia and Turkey. At the ______Peace Conference, the victorious allies encouraged the creation of new nation-states in Eastern Europe. In Russia, Bolshevik revolutionaries led by Vladimir Lenin established the world’s first ______state.
The Outbreak of World War I
•The World on the Eve of World War I
In 1900, Europeans were enjoying greater peace and prosperity than ever before. Despite minor conflicts, Europeans had not experienced a major war on the continent for almost a ______. But in some places in the world, forces of discontent were brewing. In Turkey, Mexico, China, and Russia, reformers influenced by ______ideas were outraged at sharp social ______and ______governments. In Austria-Hungary (Austria’s name after a compromise with Hungary in 1867), different ethnic minorities dreamt of independence and establishing their own ______.
Unable to achieve reform through ______means, some reformers turned to forming secret ______movements. Shortly after the turn of the century, different parts of the world exploded in social revolution. Demonstrations forced the Tsar to create a national ______in Russia in 1905. Reformers in Turkey overthrew the Sultan in 1908. In Mexico, a revolution overthrew the country’s military dictator in 1910. Even in China, nationalist reformers overthrew the emperor in 1912. All this was only the ______to later violence.
The powerful forces of nationalism and reform, which affected Russia, Turkey, Mexico, and China, had an equally explosive impact on the ______empire of Austria-Hungary. Only two years after the fall of the Chinese emperor, events in Austria-Hungary would bring the rest of Europe into armed ______. This struggle, known at the time as the “______,” would be a major turning point in world history. New technologies made warfare tremendously more ______than ever before. Imperial governments and the old class system of Europe were forever shattered. The peace that followed saw the momentary triumph of democracy, national self-determination and the creation of a new international peace organization. But the violence of the war also prepared the way for the rise of both ______and ______.
The Underlying Causes of the War I
Several factors prepared the way for the war. Many Europeans believed that some kind of major conflict had become inevitable. However few could have predicted that World War I would be as ______as it was.
Nationalism
•Nationalism is the belief that each ______group should have its own ______. It is also the belief among citizens of existing nation-states that they should promote their nation’s interests. Nationalist sometimes also assert that their own nation is ______to others.
•Nationalism encouraged ______between France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. The spread of nationalism also led to the creation of new, independent nations in the Balkans – Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, Albania, and Rumania – where the______had once ruled.
•Some of these new countries were ______. In 1912 and 1913, they fought a series of local wars that threatened to involve the larger powers. Finally, Austria-Hungary itself still consisted of several different ethnic groups, including Germans, Hungarians, Czechs, Rumanians, Poles, Serbs, and Croats. Some of these groups wanted their own ______. These demands threatened to break the Austro-Hungarian Empire apart.
Imperialism
•Many European powers believed that the sign of a great power was possession of overseas ______. The European powers had become accustomed to competing for colonies in ______and ______. Competing claims created an atmosphere of tension between the major powers. Behind nationalistic rivalries of the European great powers were competing ______interests.
•By 1900, one quarter of the world was under ______rule. German industrialization threatened British economic ______. Russian interests in the Balkans threatened both Austria-Hungary and Turkey.
The Alliance System
•By 1914, Europe had come to be divided into ______large alliances. On one side stood Germany and Austria-Hungary. Italy joined them to form ______in 1882. On the other side stood Russia, France, and Great Britain, known as the ______. Although these alliances sought to preserve the existing balance of power, any dispute involving any two of these countries threatened to drag in all the others.
Militarism
•Militarism occurs when military values and goals take over ______society. By the end of the 19th century, societies had become increasingly militaristic. Bismarck had united Germany through Prussia’s military power, and every European country tried to build up its ______. Kings wore military uniforms, even in daily life. Generals became influential in ______. Germany and Britain competed to build the most powerful ______.
•Military ______played a key role in the outbreak of World War I. Because it took time to assemble and move armies on ______, military leaders thought it was better to attack first then to wait to be attacked. This created pressure to ______and act quickly.
The Flashpoint the Ignites The War
•In July 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austrian-Empire, was ______by a member of a terrorist group, the ______, a Slav nationalist group. Austrian leaders______believed that Serb officials had secretly helped the assassins. The Austrians decided to teach Serbia a lesson. Austria-Hungary invaded tiny Serbia. This set off a ______reaction. Because of the various alliance treaties, ______entered the conflict to protect Serbia. Next, Germany entered the war to fulfill its treaty obligations to protect ______.
•Finally, Britain and France came in to honor their alliance with ______.
•Thus, within just a few weeks, Austria, Russia, Germany, Britain, and France were all at war. What began as a minor regional crisis in the ______had quickly escalated into a major European conflict. Italy refused to join the Central Powers since ______had attacked first. The ______quickly joined the Central Powers to oppose Russia, while Bulgaria joined to oppose Serbia.
Fighting the War
•Military leaders on both sides thought the war would be over ______. In fact, the struggles lasted several years. To avoid a two-front war, German war plans called for Germany to march through the lowlands of ______Belgium and to take Paris quickly before Russia could ______the war. The Germans advanced but were stopped before reaching Paris. Meanwhile, when war broke out President ______called upon Americans to take no sides and to remain ______.
•New and improved ______were used in fighting the war, including the ______, ______, ______, and airplanes. These weapons made it easier to ______positions than to attack. Soldiers dug deep ______. Soon trenches extended hundreds of miles along eastern France. Trench ______was a new and strange form of warfare the world had never seen. In trench warfare, both sides dug ditches to create fortified positions. These trenches were separated by fields of barbed wire and mines known as “no mans’ land.” Anyone who climbed out of the trenches faced instant ______from enemy machine gun fire. Soldiers spent ______in these trenches, facing shelling from artillery fire for hours each day. Since neither side could advance, fighting lines became ______.
•Sometimes, soldiers would face attacks with poison gas. Casualty rates were ______. ______were first introduced but were still too primitive to be effective. Overhead, the first airplanes were used to see what was going on across enemy lines. In the oceans, German submarines, called U-boats, were used to attack large ships. Britain placed a ______around Germany and Austria-Hungary in an attempt to ______them into submission. Russia became isolated from the West. Each side tried to mobilize all its ______, turning the war into a “total war.”
The United States Helps Win the War
•Serbia, Belgium, Italy, Romania, Greece, and Portugal joined the Allied Powers. Although the United States was officially neutral, Americans were sympathetic to ______and ______. When American ships sent supplies to the allies, they were attacked by ______submarines. In response, the United States finally entered the war in ______; in the same year, Russia dropped out. President Wilson declared that the war would make the world “safe for democracy.”
•President Wilson announced America’s war aims in the Fourteen Points. He wanted to redraw the map of ______so that each nationality had its own state. For example, he demanded creation of an independent Poland. Wilson also demanded freedom of the seas, and end to ______diplomacy, and the creation of a League of Nations. America’s entry into the war broke the deadlock in Europe. In November 1918, ______laid down their weapons and surrendered.
The Aftermath of World War I
•The human and material costs of World War I were ______. ______of people were killed or injured. Famine and malnutrition threatened many regions. Under the stress of the war, the governments of Russia and Germany were ______.
The Paris Peace Conference (1919)
•Believing that President Wilson’s offer would be the basis of the peace settlement, Germans agreed to end the war and to ______the Kaiser. Allied leaders Woodrow Wilson, David Lloyd George from Great Britain, and Georges Clemenceau from France met in Paris to negotiate the ______. Allied public opinion was eager for ______. The Treaty of Versailles (1919) concluded peace with Germany; other treaties dealt with Austria-Hungary and Turkey. The final peace terms turned out to be extremely ______on Germany.
•An independent Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia were created. The former nation of ______was combined with parts of Austria-Hungary to create the nation of ______.
•German colonies were given to Britain or France as ______– territories ruled like colonies but subject to the supervision of the ______.
Europe before WWI Europe After WWI
•According to the Covenant of the League of Nations, its purpose was to promote ______and prevent ______. The League had no military force of its own, so it depended on the help of its member states. The League consisted of a Council, representing the Great Powers, and an Assembly in which all member states were represented. It also created a new ______.
The Peace Terms Ending World War I
•Germany’s Territorial Losses.
A new independent ______was created. Germany lost territory to France and Poland, as well as all of its overseas ______.
•Punishing Germany.
Germany lost its ______, while its army was reduced to a small police force. Germany was forced to accept ______for starting the war in the War Guilt Clauseand was required to pay huge ______(payments for damages) to the Allies.
•Austria-Hungary and Turkey.
The Austro-Hungarian Empire was ______into several new national states. Turkey lost its territories in the Middle East.
•League of Nations.
The Treaty created the League of Nations, an organization of nations pledged to ______each other against aggressors. The League was severely weakened when several major powers, such as the United States and Russia, failed to ______it.
World War I and the Middle East
•World War I also led to the ______of the Ottoman Empire. The Sultan had joined the Central Powers during the war because Turkey opposed Russia.
The Armenian Massacres
•For centuries, Armenian ______had lived in the Ottoman Empire. Some Armenians sought an independent Armenian state. The Ottoman government began to ______its Armenian citizens, fearing that they might be sympathetic to Christian Russia. Armenian political leaders, educators, writers, and clergy were jailed and then hanged or shot. Next, Turkish soldiers gathered over a million Armenian men, women, and children and sent them on death marches into the Syrian desert. They also used firing squads, burnings, drownings, poisons, and drugs against Armenian victims.
•After the war, the Allies took away ______possessions in Arabia, Syria, and Palestine. To gain Arab support during the fighting, the British government had promised Arab groups their ______. But in 1919, these areas were instead divided between Britain and France as ______under the League of Nations. Uprisings in Egypt and Arabia finally led to their independence (1922-1924).
•The Allies also planned to take away much of the Turkish heartland in ______. General Mustafa Kemal, known as ______, organized resistance to Allied attempts to dismember Turkey. A new parliament declared the birth of Turkey as a secular state in 1920. After two years of fighting, Ataturk preserved Turkey in Asia Minor and abolished the Sultanate in 1923.
The Russian Revolution
•One of the most important ______of World War I was the Russian Revolution of 1917. This revolution was to have far-reaching effects on the world. To understand the causes of the revolution, it is necessary to first examine developments taking place in ______earlier in the nineteenth century.
The Roots of Revolution
•The Russian Tsars (emperors) ruled as ______(absolute rulers). Through a network of secret police and strict censorship, new ideas were ______. The vast majority of Russians were illiterate serfs who lived in poverty. The serfs remained bound to the land, long after serfdom had been abolished in other Western European countries. A small group of ______owned thousands of serfs and enjoyed vast wealth. Despite earlier efforts to introduce Western ideas to Russia, ______conditions kept the country economically under-developed. Russian reformers, inspired by the example of Western Europe, hoped to ______serfdom and ______their country.
Emancipation of the Serfs
•Acting as ______of the Orthodox Christians, Russia waged a series of wars with the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century. Between 1854 and 1856, Russia was engaged in the ______, in which England and France supported Turkey against Russia. Despite its large army, Russia lost the war. Tsar Alexander II decided to listen to reformers and ______(liberated) the serfs in 1861. The “Tsar Liberator” also intended to introduce a new elected assembly and other reforms. Ironically, the liberal Alexander II was ______by Russian revolutionaries shortly afterwards. This put an abrupt end to all attempts at reform. The freed serfs remained landless peasants, paying rents to their former owners. Later Tsars returned to a policy of ______all change and using harsh repression to maintain the existing social order.
“Autocracy, Nationality, and Orthodoxy”
•Russian nationalism had important effects on its conservative ______. They identified their empire with ______, the Russian ______and the Russian Orthodox ______. The government acted as the protector of new Slav states in the Balkans. It also adopted a policy of Russification, forcing non-Russian people such as the Finns, Poles, and the peoples of Central Asia to adopt the Russian ______and ______. Jews were persecuted in anti-semitic pogroms (officially encouraged persecutions against Jews).
Prelude to the Revolution
•By 1900, the Russian Empire stretched from Eastern Europe to the ______Ocean. Compared to the countries of Western Europe, Russia remained ______. Peasants and factory workers lived in conditions of terrible ______, while the landowning nobles enjoyed lives of ______and leisure. The autocratic Tsars opposed democratic reform, and secret revolutionary societies had formed among members of the ______elite.
The Revolution of 1905
•Under these conditions, Russia was ripe for ______. The crisis came to a head after Russia was ______in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). When troops of the Tsar trampled on ______demonstrators in St. Petersburg on “Bloody Sunday” in 1905, revolutions broke out across the country. Peasants seized lands, while workers in the cities engaged in demonstrations and general strikes. Tsar Nicholas II finally granted limited ______, creating an elected legislature known as the Duma. However, only the very ______could vote for members to the new assembly.
The Russian Revolution of 1917
•The years after 1905 showed some signs of ______. But Russia was not prepared for the strains of war. In 1914, Nicholas II brought Russia into the war against Austria-Hungary and Germany. Poorly trained and badly equipped Russian soldiers suffered disastrous defeats. In some cases, troops were even sent into battle without ______. They were told to pick up the weapons of their ______comrades. Mounting defeats led to widespread discontent in the army. Russian industries were ______of producing needed weapons and supplies. On the home front, ______supplies were dangerously low.
The “February Revolution” (March 1917)
•In 1917, worker-led food ______broke out in cities all across Russia. When soldiers refused to fire on striking workers in March 1917, Nicholas realized he was powerless to ______the nation. Nicholas gave up his ______, and the leaders of the Duma declared Russia a ______. However, the provisional government that replaced the Tsar failed to win the support of the people when it refused to ______from the war.
The “October Revolution” (November 1917)
•Vladimir ______was a follower of Karl Marx, living in exile in Switzerland. The Germans sent him back to Russia by railroad, hoping he would cause ______in Russia. This would help to end the war on the Eastern front, allowing Germany to concentrate on defeating the Western allies. Lenin’s supporters, known as the Bolsheviks, promised “Peace, Bread, and Land”; peace to the______, bread to the ______, and land to the ______. The Bolsheviks seized power by ______in a second revolution in November 1917.
•The Bolsheviks changed the name of their political party to the ______. They also changed the name of their country to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) or “Soviet Union.” Russia had become the world’s first ______country.
The Soviet Union Under Lenin: 1917-1924
•The Bolsheviks were convinced that a world ______was about to begin, first in Germany, then in Britain, and finally in the United States, Lenin added his own ideas to Marx’s original theory of Communism. He believed that a small group of ______party members must lead the country along the path to Communist ______. He argued that after the revolution, a “temporary dictatorship” of party leaders was ______because the workers, brought up in capitalist society, could not be trusted to know their own true ______.
The Russian Civil War (1919-1921)
•Once in power, the Communists immediately ______from the war against Germany. They transferred millions of acres of land to the poorer peasants. Workers were organized to control and operate ______, and all industries were ______(taken over by the government).