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FOSTERING FLUENCY

Compiled by Dr. Susan Keehn

Why examine fluency? What is fluency’s role in reading?

Fluency is a requirement of proficient reading. Chall (1983) maintained that fluency in reading needs to be acquired before the reader can use reading as a tool for learning. Other reading educators have noted that, for readers who do not make the transition from effortful reading to fluent reading, the result can negatively affect subsequent reading progress (Allington, 1983; Hoffman & Isaacs, 1991). The National Reading Panel (2000) identified fluency as the bridge between word identification and comprehension. Indeed, the correlation between fluency and comprehension is well documented. It may be that the fluent reader has mastered automatic recognition of words, freeing the reader to attend to meaning (Samuels, 1979), or it may be that a fluent reader chunks text into “syntactically meaningful phrases” that contribute to comprehension (Schreiber, 1991).

What is fluency?

At risk indicators:

  • slow and labored pace
  • poor flow with frequent pauses, false starts, sounding out
  • inappropriate phrasing evidence by choppy, word-by-word reading
  • monotonal, lacking intonation

Fluency is a multi-faceted construct. Its components are:

  • appropriate rate
  • accuracy of word identification
  • text phrasing
  • prosody (appropriate pitch, pauses, stress, intonation)

How do we foster fluency development?

Research has shown that the following instructional principles support fluency development for all students:

  • Repetition (practice/ rereading same text)
  • Manageable text (OR if text is difficult, then support must be in place tomake text accessible for the student)
  • Modeling of fluent, expressive reading

What specific instructional strategies (research-based) incorporate this principles to support fluency growth?

  • choral reading (Holdaway): Teachers “leads” the reading and student join in. Text is read several times until students can read without teacher support.
  • echo reading: Teacher reads portion of text first and student echoes what teacher has just read. Echo routine is repeated until student can read text independently.
  • neurological impress method (Heckelman): Simultaneous oral reading with teacher and studentsitting side-by-side sharing a text. Teacher sets a moderate pace and reads just ahead of student, tracking print with finger.
  • cloze procedure (Cloze): Student and adult reread text several times together. Each time adults “drops off” earlier, pausing to allow student to supply remaining words.
  • partner reading (Topping): Side-by-side reading between two children, taking turns.
  • repeated readings (Samuels): Student repeatedly reads text until rate of 85 wpm is reached.
  • tape-assisted readings (Chomsky, Carbo): As child listens to proficient reading of text on headphones, he/she reading along with text.
  • readers theater (Martinez, Roser & Keehn): Using a text converted to script format, “repertory groups” rehearse for a reading performance.

How should fluency be assessed?

Too often only one measure (usually rate) is used to assess fluency. Such assessment practices reflect misunderstanding of what fluency is. Fluency is not a “reading race!”

Below is one diagnostic assessment that measures all aspects of fluency. The reliability and validity of this instrument have been tested with children from Grades 1 through Grade 8.

Diagnostic Fluency Assessment (Martinez, Roser & Keehn, 1999)

1) Rate –words per minute

2) Accuracy—percentage of words correctly identified

3) Fluidity

  1. Hesitations in every line of print with many false starts; frequent prompting; frequent repetitions; no rhythm or cadence
  2. Several extended pauses, hesitations and/or repetitions that are disruptive to the reading; occasional prompting; impression of choppiness
  3. occasional inappropriate pauses; only occasional hesitation or repetition; rare prompting; only occasional choppiness
  4. smooth reading overall with few pauses, hesitations or repetitions; word or structural difficulties are quickly resolved through self-corrections; no choppiness
  5. smooth, connected reading with no inappropriate pauses or hesitations; rare false start is quickly self-corrected; appropriate, varied rhythm and cadence

4)Phrasing

  1. Readings in a word-by-word manner; ignores phrase boundaries and punctuation or creates inappropriate boundaries
  2. Overuses inappropriate phrasing, breaks phrasing within meaningful units; may break between subject and verb; some attention to punctuation boundaries
  3. Some inappropriate phrasing; attends to punctuation boundaries
  4. Usually chunks text into syntactically meaningful unites; attends to punctuation boundaries
  5. Consistently chunks text into syntactically meaningful units; attends to punctuation boundaries

5)Expressiveness

  1. Reads with equal stress to each word; reads in a monotone with no expression; fails to mark end of sentences or dialogue with rise/fall of voice
  2. Uses minimal expression; reads with inappropriate stress; uses intonation which fails to mark end of sentences and clauses
  3. Uses some appropriate expression; reads with reasonable stress; uses intonation which marks end of sentences and clauses
  4. Generally uses appropriate stress and intonation with adequate attention to expression including voice change at quotations and appropriate rise and fall of voice
  5. Consistently attends to appropriate stress, intonation, and expression including consistent voice changes for quotations; demonstrates sensitivity to mood and tone; alters rate as needed for dramatic effect