What Is a GoodBook? The Pictures

James Jacobs and Michael Tunnel

In this age of visual bombardment—daily overloads of images on computer screens,in magazines, on television, at the movies, and along the roadside—do children needeven more images in picture books? The answer is a resounding “Yes!” The problemis not having too much to see but learning to be discriminating w hat they see. Weuse the term visual literacyto describe this sort of discrimination. More than any othergeneration, today’s children need to develop discretion about what they view. Picturebooks are a perfect vehicle for opening a child’s eyes to the beauty and power of artbecause they do not function like other books, in which words alone tell a story orconvey information.

Illustrations in the better picture books share the function of storytelling or conceptteaching. In fact, in wordless picture books the illustrations do the whole job. Sothe pictures beg for active participation in their viewing, unlike so many of the randomimages that are flashed daily in front of us. Text and illustration weave togetherto communicate. To get the full measure of meaning and fulfillment from a good picturebook, the reader must attend carefully to both (Kiefer 1995). Through the beautifully crafted picture books available today, young readers not only may become awareof the variety of artistic styles, media, and techniques that artists employ, but also maydevelop a sense for judging quality.

Developing the Ability to “See”

Adults tend to sellchildren short when it comes to their abilities to perceive the world.Both of us have heard our university students, who are, of course, adults, say suchthings as, “This artwork is too sophisticated for children. Won’t they OD on this?”One woman actually asked, “Why do they waste such great art on kids?” Truth beknown, children are generally more visually aware and alert than most adults (McDermott 1974b). The older we get, the more our visual awareness is likely to be dulledby overload or by the real or imagined expectations our educational systems have imposedon us that alter the way we view images. Honest responses to art and other visualstimuli are programmed out of most children. They begin to ignore their ownpersonal reactions and the fascinating detail in the art in order to second-guess theirteachers’ agendas, thus becoming basically less aware. This process is not much differentfrom analyzing poetry with children until the beauty is beaten out of it.

As we have read to children over the years, they have shown us detail in picturebook illustrations that our supposedly sophisticated adult eyes overlooked. For example,we had read OnMarket Sweet (Lobe1 1981) many times, but had not noticedthat the figure representing Tfor toys in this alphabet book had on her hands puppetsof the immensely popular Frog and Toad characters. That is, we did not notice themuntil a child pointed them out. Frog and Toad were made famous in Newbery andCaldecott Honor books created by Arnold Lobel-husband of Anita Lobel, who illustratedOnMarket Street. Children have shown us that the church tower clock ineach illustration in Anno’s Counting Book (Anno 1977) always points to the hour thatcorresponds with the number being presented. Gerald McDermott has observed thatyounger children, when reading Arrow to the Sun (McDermott 1974a), notice the sun symbol on the chest of the Sun God’s child, an obvious visual link between father and son. However, McDermott (1974b) points out that older children tend not recognizethe Pueblo boy’s emblem.

Illustration in picture books is meant to delight, to capture attention, to tell astory or teach a concept, and to develop appreciation and awareness in children. Ofcourse, appreciation is developed in part by consistent exposure to the wonderful varietiesof art that are coupled with pleasing stories in today’s picture books. Young childrenbegin to sense something special in good art when they see lots of it. Forexample, Quincy had seen many fine picture books in his short six years. When he waslistening to a new book, 17Kings and 42 Elephants (Mahy 1987), which has jewel-likebatik on silk paintings by Patricia McCarthy, he suddenly interrupted to say, “Dad,these pictures are marvelous!”“Marvelous” was a bit unexpected coming from sucha little body, but more amazing was his evaluative response to the artwork. Quincydidn’t have the understanding or the words to analyze McCarthy’s work, but he simplyknew it was good stuff. How did he know? Because he’d seen so many picturebooks that he’d developed a level of appreciation that governed his taste in illustrations.Taste and appreciation come by experience, by comparing a variety of examples.Taste is broadened and cultivated by exposure; it is narrowed or allowed to lay fallowby restricting experience. Indeed, if all that children see in the world of art are Saturdaymorning cartoons, then such will be the standard of art for them.

Functions of Illustrations in Picture Books

“The function of art is to clarify, intensify, or otherwise enlarge our experience of life”(Canady 1980). This statement is as true for picture book illustrations as it is forgallery paintings, but picture book artwork also must operate in a manner unique toits special format. Because picture books are made up of a series of illustrations thattypically tell a story, the art may function in one or more of the following ways:

Establishing setting. Art is a natural for creating the setting in an illustrated book. Time periods in historical stories or far-flung cultural settings can be brought to life through illustrations in ways words cannot do. Look at The Fortune-Tellers (Alexander1992) as an example. This is a universal story that could have been set in any numberof places and times, but Trina Schart Hyman’s illustrations allow the story tospring suddenly into a certain place and time-the west African country of Cameroonin what Hyman calls “the fantastical present” (Hyman 1995). The handsome peoplein rainbow-colored costume and the crisp, highly detailed surroundings create a idyllic,slightly larger-than-life backdrop for Alexander’s literary folktale. (See Illustration 1.)

Define anddevelop characters. Artists can give characters an extra fleshing outthrough illustrations. Through the artwork in Ira Sleeps Over (Waber 1972), for example,we learn much about Ira’s parents that is not revealed in the text. We see hisparents’ interesting and somewhat untraditional lifestyle, especially for the time when the book was published. For instance, in one illustration Ira’s father is cooking dinner,in another he is playing the bass. Frog Goes to Dinner (Mayer 1974), a wordless picturebook, relies completely on illustrations to define and develop the characters.Mayer is a marvel when it comes to using facial expressions to communicate what hischaracters are feeling. Note the double-page illustration of the angry family drivinghome after they have been thrown out of Fancy Restaurant. Each family member harborsan individual response to the disaster. (See Illustration 2.)

Reinforce text. The primary function of some picture book illustrations is to reinforcethe text. Nonfiction picture books often fill into this category, with the illustrationsand diagrams restating visually what the words say. For instance, StevenKellogg’s illustrations for How Much Is a Million? (Schwartz 1985) reinforce the conceptof large numbers. For text that reads, “If a billion kids made a human tower . . .they would stand up past the moon,” the accompanying illustration shows the top ofa stack of happy children with the lunar landscape in the background. The topmostchildren are holding a banner that reads “1,000,000,000 KIDS.”

Illustrations in a picture storybook also may function primarily to reinforce thestory. In the ever popular Blueberries for Sal (McCloskey 1948), for example, readerssee what the text describes—the countryside in Maine as well as the characters whoare out picking blueberries—but no major extensions to the text are evident.

Provide a different viewpoint. One of the most enjoyable ways in which illustrationsmay function in a picture book is that of telling a story different from the textor even being in opposition to the words. In Rosie’s Walk (Hutchins 1968), the textsays that Rosie the hen takes a peaceful stroll around the firm and gets “back in timefor dinner.” However, the illustrations tell another tale: A fox, never mentioned in thenarrative, lurks behind Rosie every step of the way, but is somehow frustrated every time it pounces forward to make Rosie its dinner. (See Illustration 3.) Peter Spier’sOh, Were They Ever Happy (1978) is an example of words and text that are humorouslyin opposition to one another. Children inadvertently left alone for the day (thebaby-sitter has her days confused and doesn’t show) decide to do something nice fortheir parents—paint the house. The words say “Neat job and “Pretty color!” whilethe illustrations show what a horrible mess the kids are making. They paint the bricksand windowpanes; they finish one color of paint and take up another. Similarly, inBurningham’s Come Awayfrom the Water, Shirley (1977), the only words come fromShirley’s parents, who nag her constantly to keep clean and stay safe during their dayat the beach. In contrast, the illustrations show Shirley tuning out her parents’ admonitionswhile her imagination takes her on a seaside adventure battling pirates.

Provide interesting asides. Sometimes picture book illustrations are filled withinteresting asides-subplots or details not necessarily related to the main story line.Many of Mitsumasa Anno’s books employ this technique. In the wordless picturebook Anno’s Journey (Anno 1978), the main focus is a traveler whose journey takeshim on horseback through the countryside, towns, and cities of historical Europe. A careful examination of the busy illustrations shows all sorts of wonderful surprises: fairy tale characters and famous historical figures blending into crowds of people, entertainingbut brief human dramas such as a hotly contested foot race, and so on.

Extend or develop the plot. The plot of a story may be advanced by illustrations.In wordless picture books, the whole plot is unfolded through pictures. Sometimesthe plot is merely extended or rounded a little by the illustrations, as in StephenGammell’s art in The Relatives Came (Rylant 1985). Gamrnell shows that one family’sjourney to a family reunion is a bit perilous because Dad isn’t such a good driver. Although Rylant’s words say nothing about the driving, Dad levels the mailbox on theway out, loses suitcases, careens around mountain curves, and destroys their relatives’fence upon arrival. (See Illustration 4.)

Establish mood. Illustrations are extremely effective in determining the mood ofa picture storybook. The Polar Express (Van Allsburg 198 5) is a Christmas story, andChristmas stories typically use a bright and cheery palette. The mood in Van Allsburg’sstory, however, is mysterious, and he uses dark colors to establish that mood. Withmuted reds and blues and even muted yellows along with plenty of black and brown,the artist creates an eerie atmosphere as a young boy watches a magical train steam itsway into his front yard late Christmas Eve. The mood is maintained as the train whiskshim and other children toward the North Pole, zipping past dark forests filled with wolves. (See Illustration 5.)

Style and Media in Picture Book Illustration

Artists are able to use a vast array of styles and media to create the illustrations inchildren’s books today, partly because the technology of camera color separationsmakes reproducing sophisticated artwork feasible. In fact, some of the best andmost varied artwork being done today appears in picture books. We know a professionalartist who regularly checks the children’s section at the public library to seewhat’s new in picture books because he believes the best contemporary work is tobe found there.

Excellent artwork can, of course, be rendered in various styles, ranging from extremelyrealistic to abstract. Realism, or representational style, is a faithful reproductionof nature, people, and objects as they actually appear. The illustrations inZelinsky’s Rapunzel(1997) are representational. (See Illustration 6.)Surrealism is realismskewed. It is an attempt to represent the workings of the unconscious mind by creating a dreamlike state, as in Clement’s The Voice of the Wood (1989). (See Illustration7.) Expressionism, which is an attempt to give objective expression to inner experience,often makes use of bright colors and figures that are a bit disproportionate. Thisstylized form is evident in Williams’s A Chair for My Mother (1982). (See Illustration 8.) Another popular style is impressionism, which emphasizes light, movement, andusually color over detail. A fine example ofimpressionism is Lagarrigue’s art for Wiles’sFreedom Summer (2001). (See Illustration 9.) Naive is a style that gives the appearanceof being childlike, perhaps lacking perspective or a sense of proportion. Barbara Cooney used a naïve style in her paintings for Hall’s Ox-Cart Man (1979). (See Illustration10.) There are, of course, other artistic styles, including cartoon art, as foundin James Stevenson’s That TerribleHalloween Night (1980). (See Illustration 11.)

The various styles artists use to create their artwork may be rendered in a varietyof artistic media. There are basically two categories of media: painterly and graphic.Painterly media include the most common art materials, such as paint, pencil, andink. In Rapunzel, Zelinsky used oil paints, an opaque layering of colors. (See Illustration6.) Watercolors, which are translucent, were the medium for Stevenson’s paintingsin That Terrible Halloween Night. (See Illustration 11.) Van Allsburg usedgraphite, or pencil, another painterly medium, in The Widow’s Brow (1992). (See Illustration12.) Also in this category is pen and ink, which Isadora used in Ben’sTrumpet (1979). (See Illustration 13.) Other painterly media include colored pencils,pastels (chalk), charcoal, crayons, fit-tip markers, gouache (opaque, water-based paints), tempura (opaque water-based or egg yolk-based paints) and acrylics (plastic paints).

Artists apply painterly media directly to canvas, paper, or some other surface.But when artists usegraphic media, they generally create the artwork elsewhere beforeapplying it to the final surface. With woodcuts, for instance, the artist carvesimages in relief into a block of wood. Then inks or paints are applied to the woodand transferred to a surface, such as paper. Marcia Brown’s illustrations for Once aMouse . . . (1961) are woodcuts. (See Illustration 14); notice the wood grain.)Linoleum cuts are similar in technique to woodcuts, but they produce a cleanerline, as in Mary Wormell’s Hilda Hen’s Scary Night (1996). (See Illustration 15.)Collage, another popular graphic technique, involves cutting and tearing shapesfrom paper or fabric and arranging them on the page, as in Keats’s TheSnowy Day(1962). (See Illustration 16.) Collage may also include other objects that are attachedto the surface, like the breakfast cereal and wire hangers in Diaz’s illustrations for Bunting’s Smoky Night (1994). David Wisniewski’s dramatic illustrationsin Golem (1996), created by overlaying intricate paper cutouts, are a sophisticated

form of collage. (See Illustration 31.) Stone lithography is an engraving on stonethat is printed on paper, such as the illustrations for the 1939 edition of AbrahamLincoln by Ingri and Edgar d’Aulaire. (See Illustration 17.) A graphic medium thatlooks a bit like pen-and-ink drawings is called scratchboard. A black inkcoating isscratched away to show the white surface beneath; color may be added after the“drawing” is complete, as in The Faithful Friend (San Souci 1995), illustrated byBrian Pinkney. (See Illustration 18.) Even photocopy can be considered a graphictechnique. Bruce McMillan’s Mouse Views: What the Class Pet Saw (1993) usescolor photography to give children a fresh look at their world. (See Illustration 19.)Also, artists will often mixmedia, using both graphic and painterly techniques together. A prime example isMolly Bang’s The Paper Crane (1985), which usesthree-dimensional paper cutouts, traditional collage, and painterly techniques.Each page was then photographed to retain its three-dimensional quality. (See Illustration 20.)

Visual Elements

Like all artists, picture book illustrators incorporate several visual elements into thecreation of their pictures that subtly affect the way we respond to the art. These elementsare line, shape, color, texture, and composition.

Lines. Lines in illustrations are either curved or straight. These lines may vary inthickness or length. They may run horizontally, diagonally, or vertically. They may besolid or broken. How line is used often plays an important role in what a picture communicates.For instance, diagonal lines suggest movement (slant of the road in Illustration4 and of the keyboard in Illustration 13).The dominant vertical lines of thetrees in Illustration 5, from Van Allsburg’s Polar Express, create a static look, as if thisscene were a photograph capturing and arresting a moment in the flow of action. Onthe other hand, horizontal lines may suggest order or tranquility.

Artists also use line to h e c t the viewer’s eye. LeCain’s use of line in the Grimm Brothers’Thorn Rose (1975) focuses the eye upon the ominous tower holding theonly remaining spinning wheel. The lines created by a wall, row of windows, roof line,and balustrade lead to the upper right-hand corner and seem to converge at the tower.Even the fountain and the horizon point the way. In this manner, LeCain guides ourviewing of his painting. (See Illustration 26.)