Well-To-Wheel GHG Emissions and Mitigation Potential from Light-Duty Vehicles in Macau

Well-To-Wheel GHG Emissions and Mitigation Potential from Light-Duty Vehicles in Macau

electronic supplementary material

carbon footprinting

Well-to-wheel GHG emissions and mitigation potential from light-duty vehicles in Macau

Qingbin Song1 • Ye Wu2 • Jinhui Li2 • Zhishi Wang1 • Danfeng Yu3 • Huabo Duan3

Received: 2 August 2017 / Accepted: 14 November 2017

© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2017

Responsible editor: Wulf-Peter Schmidt

1 Macau Environmental Research Institute, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau

2 School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China

3 College of Civil Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China

 Qingbin Song

 Huabo Duan

Table S1 Basic information of test vehicle samples

No. / Fuel type / Vehicle model / Country / Model year / Odometer (km) / Engine displacement (L) / Gross vehicle weight (kg)
LDGVs
G1 / Gasoline / Mitsubishi Lancer GLXI A/T / Japan / 1991 / 159707 / 1.47 / 1120
G2 / Gasoline / DAIHATSU CUORE M/T / Japan / 1992 / 66713 / 0.85 / 1040
G3 / Gasoline / DAIHATSU CHARADE CX M/T / Japan / 1994 / 69671 / 1.3 / 1350
G4 / Gasoline / Toyota corolla XLI M/T / Japan / 1996 / 107113 / 1.33 / 1465
G5 / Gasoline / Ford festwa 1.3GLI M/T / South Korea / 1997 / 86437 / 1.32 / 1349
G6 / Gasoline / Toyota corolla GLi M/T / Japan / 1997 / 76350 / 1.5 / 1515
G7 / Gasoline / Mazda new323 GLI5 M/T / Japan / 1998 / 103651 / 1.5 / 1565
G8 / Gasoline / Toyota echo verso 1.3 A/T / Japan / 2002 / 52904 / 1.3 / 1530
G9 / Gasoline / Toyota echo verso 1.3 A/T / Japan / 2002 / 57403 / 1.3 / 1530
G10 / Gasoline / Toyota camry 2.4 A/T / Japan / 2002 / 36989 / 2.36 / 1935
G11 / Gasoline / Toyota Corolla 1.5 GL-I A/T / Japan / 2004 / 71884 / 1.5 / 1555
G12 / Gasoline / Toyota Corolla 1.5 GL-I A/T / Japan / 2004 / 75008 / 1.5 / 1555
G13 / Gasoline / Suzuki Swift1.3 M/T / Japan / 2006 / 26694 / 1.33 / 1470
G14 / Gasoline / Honda civic 1.8 Exi M/T / Japan / 2006 / 15443 / 1.8 / 1680
G15 / Gasoline / Toyota voxy z A/T / Japan / 2006 / 69900 / 1.99 / 1920
G16 / Gasoline / Honda civic 1.8 VTI A/T / Japan / 2007 / 78764 / 1.8 / 1680
LDDVs
D1 / Diesel / Mazda 323 2.0L LX5 M/T / Japan / 1998 / >1 million km / 1.99 / 1600
D2 / Diesel / Corolla X ASSISTA M/T / Japan / 2002 / 791572 / 2.18 / 1405
D3 / Diesel / Corolla 2.2X M/T / Japan / 2002 / 842805 / 2.18 / 1405
D4 / Diesel / Corolla X ASSISTA M/T / Japan / 2002 / >1 million km / 2.18 / 1405
D5 / Diesel / PEUGEOT 406 HDI4-DO / France / 2002 / 1065000 / 2 / 1870
D6 / Diesel / Corolla 2.0 / Japan / 2003 / 757940 / 1.98 / 1630
D7 / Diesel / Corolla 2.0 Xli M/T / Japan / 2005 / 547646 / 1.98 / 1630
D8 / Diesel / Corolla Xli M/T / Japan / 2005 / 687171 / 1.98 / 1630
D9 / Diesel / Corolla 2.0 Xli M/T / Japan / 2006 / 569324 / 1.98 / 1630
D10 / Diesel / Corolla 2.0 Xli M/T / Japan / 2006 / 634272 / 1.98 / 1630
D11 / Diesel / Corolla 2.0 Xli M/T / Japan / 2007 / 372194 / 1.98 / 1630
D12 / Diesel / Corolla 2.0 M/T / Japan / 2007 / 210830 / 1.98 / 1695
D13 / Diesel / Hyundai Sonata 2.0CRDI A/T / South Korea / 2007 / 371966 / 1.99 / 2150
D14 / Diesel / Hyundai Sonata 2.0CRDI A/T / South Korea / 2007 / 262065 / 1.99 / 2150
D15 / Diesel / Hyundai Sonata CRDI A/T / South Korea / 2008 / 144000 / 1.99 / 2150
D16 / Diesel / Corolla 2.0 Xli M/T / Japan / 2009 / 135743 / 1.98 / 1695
HEVs
H1 / Gasoline / Toyota Prius II / Japan / 2006 / 29542 / 1.3 / 1725
H2 / Gasoline / Toyota Prius III / Japan / 2010 / 249 / 1.8 / 1805

Table S2 Diesel import in Macau

Country / 2010 / 2011 / 2014
Mainland China / 74.02 % / 90.00 % / 71.55 %
Saudi Arabia / 25.20 % / 9.97 % / 28.44 %
Others / 0.78 % / 0.03 % / 0.01 %
Total / 100 % / 100 % / 100 %

Table S3 Gasoline import in Macau

Country / 2010 / 2011 / 2012 / 2013 / 2014
UK / 38.98 % / 0 / 0 / 0 / 0
Singapore / 53.31 % / 81.62 % / 79.48 % / 91.83 % / 90.30 %
Saudi Arabia / 7.71 % / 12.21 % / 17.96 % / 8.17 % / 5.44 %
Mainland China / 0.00 % / 6.16 % / 2.55 % / 0 / 3.52 %
Others / 0 / 0 / 0 / 0 / 0.74 %
Total / 100 % / 100 % / 100 % / 100 % / 100 %

Table S4 Basic information of EVs samples

NO. / Vehicle model / Country / Model year / Gross vehicle weight (kg) / Electricity consumption (kWh/100km)
E1 / Geely Emgrand EV / Mainland China / 2015 / 1570 / 15.8
E2 / BYD E6 / Mainland China / 2016 / 2380 / 19.5
E3 / BMW i3 / Germany / 2014 / 1390 / 12.1
E4 / BAIC ES210 / Mainland China / 2015 / 1760 / 13.5
E5 / BAIC E150 EV / Mainland China / 2014 / 1370 / 20.0
E6 / Dongfeng Nissan Breeze 3.6 KW / Mainland China / 2014 / 1494 / 15.0

Table S5 Macau power plants (million kWh)

Power plant / 2008 / 2009 / 2010 / 2011 / 2012 / 2013 / 2014 / 2015
Heavy oil / 144.3 / 976.35 / 319.46 / 436.38 / 376 / 222.1 / 208.53 / 753.03
Natural gas / 104.1 / 373.99 / 608.54 / 293.86 / 0 / 0 / 226.55 / 0
Total / 248.4 / 1350.34 / 928 / 730.24 / 376 / 222.1 / 435.08 / 753.03

Table S6 Electricity distribution loss in Macau

Year / 2001 / 2002 / 2003 / 2004 / 2005 / 2006 / 2007 / 2008 / 2009 / 2010 / 2011 / 2012 / 2013 / 2014
Electricity loss (%) / 5.24 / 6.00 / 5.75 / 6.16 / 5.46 / 5.11 / 4.50 / 4.30 / 4.56 / 4.09 / 3.55 / 3.69 / 3.17 / 3.40

Table S7 Stock volumes of the LDVs in Macau

Year / LDGVs / LDDVs (Taxi) / Total
Private vehicles / Others
1995 / 33,458 / 2,855 / 685 / 36,998
1996 / 37,769 / 2,919 / 715 / 41,403
1997 / 41,765 / 3,029 / 715 / 45,509
1998 / 45,186 / 2,979 / 755 / 48,920
1999 / 46,677 / 3,120 / 755 / 50,552
2000 / 47,763 / 2,992 / 755 / 51,510
2001 / 48,857 / 2,767 / 755 / 52,379
2002 / 52,160 / 2,894 / 755 / 55,809
2003 / 55,861 / 2,945 / 750 / 59,556
2004 / 60,089 / 3,077 / 750 / 63,916
2005 / 64,325 / 3,248 / 761 / 68,334
2006 / 67,384 / 3,562 / 780 / 71,726
2007 / 69,457 / 5,828 / 832 / 76,117
2008 / 71,695 / 6,078 / 980 / 78,753
2009 / 73,215 / 6,304 / 980 / 80,499
2010 / 76,497 / 6,402 / 980 / 83,879
2011 / 81,014 / 6,587 / 980 / 88,581
2012 / 87,197 / 6,808 / 1,058 / 95,063
2013 / 93,230 / 7,138 / 1,179 / 101,547
2014 / 99,072 / 7,638 / 1,281 / 107,991

Table S8 GHGs emission factors of the Euro 3, 4 and 5 for small vehicles

Diesel vehicles / Emission factor
(kg CO2 eq/100km) / Gasoline vehicles / Emission factor
(kg CO2 eq/100km)
Euro 3 / 22.31 / Euro 3 / 28.04
Euro 4 / 21.78 / Euro 4 / 26.29
Euro 5 / 21.13 / Euro 5 / 25.09

(A) THC

(B) CO

(C) NOx

(D) CO2

Fig. S1 Gas emission levels of LDVs in Macau (g/km)

Fig. S2 Energy consumption of LDVs per 100 km: (A) LDGVs; (B) LDDVs; (C): HEVs. The error bars for the other countries and regions denote the variances under normal distribution with a 95 % confidence interval

Fig.S3 Electricity composition in Macau (million kWh)

Fig. S4 Estimation of stock number of LDVs: (A): LDGVs; (B): LDDVs