Upon Completion of the Lesson Activities the Student Will Be Able To

AP Biology: Scientific Method Life Activities Objectives-Upon completion of the lesson activities the student will be able to:

1. state the major steps of the scientific method and apply these to real situations.
2. explain the difference between a theory and a law.
3. explain the difference between and identify a control and a variable in an experiment.
4. explain what is meant by a placebo.
5. define the term biology.
6. define the life activities nutrition, transport, locomotion, respiration, synthesis, regulation, growth, reproduction, growth, excretion.
7. explain the difference between ingestion and digestion.
8. define the terms homeostasis and metabolism.
9. define the term adaptation.

Basic Chemistry Objectives-
1.describe the structure and geometry of a water molecule, and explain what properties emerge as a result of this structure.
2. explain the relationship between the polar nature of water and its ability to formhydrogen bonds.
3. list six characteristics of water that are emergent properties resulting from hydrogen bonding and polar covalent bonding and explain how these properties relate to these concepts.
4. describe the biological significance of the cohesiveness of water.
5. distinguish between heat and temperature.
6. explain how water's high specific heat, high heat of vaporization, and expansion upon freezing affect both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.
7. distinguish among a solute, a solvent, and a solution.
8. explain how the polarity of the water molecule makes it a versatile solvent.
9. distinguish between hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances.
10. understand that a mole is a unit of substance concentration.
11. discuss the basic causes of global warming, acid precipitation, and ozone depletionand state three negative consequences for the environment caused by each.

Upon completion of the lesson activities the student will be able to:

1. define the terms element, atom, molecule, and compound.
2. list the three stable subatomic particles and describe their charges, masses, and locations within the atom.
3. define and interpret the significance of the atomic mass and atomic number of an element.
4. define what is meant by a radioisotope and a tracer element.
5. explain how I-131 is used in medicine.
6. describe the order and configuration of electrons around the atoms of elements having an atomic number less than twenty one.
7. explain the difference between electron energy levels, sublevels, and orbitals.
8. explain the difference between the ground state and the excited state of an electron.
9. recognize that orbiting electrons like to form pairs.
10. recognize that whenever possible, atoms like a filled octet.
11. recognize that the charge of most atoms is neutral.
12. define and illustrate the difference using Lewis Dot structures between ionic and covalent bonds.
13. define the terms oxidation and reduction.
14. recognize that most compounds in living tissue are covalently bonded and contain carbon.
15. distinguish between the structural, molecular, and empirical formulas of a compound.
16. explain the difference between a saturated and an unsaturated compound.
17. explain the difference between single, double, and triple bonds.
18. define the terms hydrocarbon and macromolecule.
19. describe the bonding structure of water.
20. explain the difference between a polar covalent and a nonpolar covalent bond.
21. explain what is meant by hydrogen bonding & illustrate the hydrogen bonding b/t water molecules.
22. state and explain six properties of water essential to life.
23. explain the difference between a hydrophilic and a hydrophobic substance.
24. define the terms cohesion, adhesion, and capillarity.
25. explain how cohesion results in the high surface tension of water.
26. explain how the property of adhesion result in the meniscus formed when reading a graduated cylinder.
27. recognize the relationship between tube diameter and capillary action.
28. define the terms acid and base in terms of their relative ion concentrations.
29. explain what the pH scale is representing.
30. explain the litmus and phenolphthalein tests for acids and bases.
31. state the neutralization reaction and explain why it is important in living things and some places where it occurs in humans.

Chemistry Objectives Carbon and Molecular Diversity-

1. explain how carbons electron configuration influences the numbers and kinds of bonds carbon will form.
2. describe how carbon skeletons may vary, and explain how this variation contributes to the diversity and complexity of organic molecules.
3. define the term isomer and recognize its significance to the properties of compounds.
4. recognize the major functional groups and describe the chemical properties of organic molecules in which they occur.

Upon completion of the information on biochemistry the student will be able to:
1. explain how carbohydrates can be recognized by their molecular formulae.
2. recognize the structural formula of glucose.
3. recognize the formulae and explain the difference between monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
4. explain how disaccharides and polysaccharides can be synthesized from monosaccharides.
5. list some uses for simple sugars (monosaccharides), disaccharides, and polysaccharides in living things.
6. list two examples of monosaccharides.
7. list three examples of disaccharides and their specific uses.
8. list two examples of polysaccharides and their specific uses.
9. define and explain the difference between a hydrolysis reaction and a dehydration synthesis reaction.
10. explain how lipids are classified.
11. recognize that oils and waxes are lipids and explain the basic difference between them.
12. explain the basic differences in structure and function between neutral fats, phospholipids, and steroid compounds.
13.describe basic structure of proteins recognize that these are formed from amino acid subunits.
14. recognize that twenty different kinds of amino acids exist and that these amino acids are different because they have different side chains or groups.
15. describe the basic structure of an amino acid.
16. list several functions of amino acids essential to living things.
17.distinguish b/t following levels of protein structure; primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary.
18. explain the role of catabolic & anabolic pathways in the energy exchanges of cellular metabolism.
19. distinguish between kinetic and potential energy.
20. explain the first and second laws of thermodynamics.
21. explain why highly ordered living systems do not violate the second law of thermodynamics.
22. explain correctly construct potential energy diagrams for endothermic & exothermic reactions.
23. distinguish between exergonic and endergonic reactions.
24. describe the influence of enzymes on chemical reactions and represent this influence on a potential energy diagram.
25. describe the basic structure of an enzyme.
26. define the terms substrate and active site.
27. describe the lock and key and induced fit hypotheses of enzye function.
28. explain what allosteric effects are in relation to enzyme function.
29. recognize that most enzymes function best at a neutral pH and explain why this is so.
30. recognize the effects of temperature on the function of most enzymes and relate these effects to the kinetic molecular theory.
31. define the term denaturization and list three factors which can cause this to occur
32. recognize the effects when a fixed amount of enzyme is placed with an excess of substrate and explain why these effects occur.
33. recognize the effects when a fixed amount of substrate is placed with an excess of enzyme and explain why these effects occur.
34. describe the role of coenzymes and cofactors in relation to the structure and function of enzymes.
35 explain how enzyme activity can be regulated by environmental conditions, cofactors, enzyme inhibitors, and allosteric regulators.
36. explain how metabolic pathways are regulated by allosteric effects.

Cells Objectives

1. explain how the following tools are used in biological study; light microscope,staining techniques, ultracentrifuge, and the electron microscope.
2. list several reasons that most cells must be small.
3. discuss the structure and function of the plasma membrane.
4. define the term compartmentalization and explain its importance to cell function.
5. discuss the structure and function of the following major cell structures
or organelles including the; lysosome, rough endoplasmic reticulum,
peroxisomes, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondrion, golgi complex,
ribosome, nucleus, nuclear membrane, and nucleolus.
6. list three organelles found in plant cells but not animal cells and their functions.
7. discuss the chief structural differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
8. define each of the following terms; autolysis and apoptosis.
9. discuss the "9 + 2" structure associated with many cell structures & list these cell structures.
10. explain the endosymbiont theory and the concept of cytoplasmic inheritance.
11. discuss how several structures hold cells together.
12. discuss how gap junctions and the plasmodesmata are involved incellular communications
13. describe the following different kinds of cellular transport utilized in the living cell; diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion.
14. explain the difference between hypertonic, isotonic, and hypotonic solutions.
15. explain osmosis and diffusion situations based on concentration differences in living things.
16. distinguish and describe the differences between active transport and passive transport.
17. describe the ways small particles and dissolved macromolecules are ingested by the cell; pinocytosis and phagocytosis.
18. explain what is meant by a carrier molecule and facilitated diffusion.
19. describe the role of aquaporins in the cell membrane.
20. define each of the following terms; permeases, exocytosis, cell sap, turgor, wilt, and osmotic potential.
21. explain what is meant by receptor mediated endocytosis and exocytosis.

Chapter 9 Campbell (Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy)

1. discuss the role of ATP/ADP in the energy economy of living organisms.
2. define the terms oxidation and reduction.
3. recognize that energy may be converted from one form to another and thatno energy conversion is 100% efficient.
4. discuss the significance of glycolysis and aerobic respiration from anevolutionary perspective..
5. explain why most organisms need oxygen and state how carbon dioxide andwater are produced as waste products of cellular respiration.
6. name the starting materials and important end products of; glycolysis, thetransition reaction, TCA cycle, and the electron transport system.
7. discuss the functions of the processes above in the scheme of cellular respiration.
8. state where in the cell and/or mitochondrion the processes listed inobjective number seven occur in eukaryotes.
9. explain the importance of the electron transport system to the cell.
10. describe the chemiosmotic theory of ATP synthesis.
11. explain how the ability to undergo anaerobic respiration, and to acquire anoxygen debt, is a useful adaptation for muscle tissue.
12. compare and contrast the process of alcoholic fermentation by a wine yeastwith the process of anaerobic respiration by a muscle.
13. compare aerobic and anaerobic respiration with respect to the amount ofATP generated by each process.
14. explain why we get fat when we eat more food than we need.

Chapter 10 Campbell (Photosynthesis)

1. distinguish between autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition.
2. describe the structure of the chloroplast and how these structuresrelate to their unction.
3. write a summary equation for photosynthesis.
4. list the wavelengths of light that are most effective for photosynthesis.
5. describe the role of accessory pigments in plants.
6. label the following structures in a plant leaf cross section and statetheir functions; upper epidermis, palisade layer, spongy layer,vascular bundles, lower epidermis, guard cells, stomata, and the cuticle.
7. explain what happens when chlorophyll or accessory pigmentsabsorb photons.
8. list the components of a photosystem and explain their function.
9. trace electron flow through photosystems II and I.
10. compare cyclic and noncyclic electron flow and explain therelationship between these components of the light reactions.
11. summarize the chief results of the light reactions.
12. discuss the role of rubisco and PGAL in the Calvin cycle and state thechief result of this cycle.
13. describe the role of ATP and NADPH produced in the light reactions inthe Calvin cycle.
14. Describe what happens to rubisco when the O2 concentration ismuch higher than CO2
15. discuss the major consequences of photorespiration.
16. discuss two important photosynthetic adaptations thatminimize photorespiration.
17. Compare and contrast C-4, C-3, and the CAM pathways of photosynthesis.

Classical Genetics Objectives-

1. list several features of Mendel's methods that contributed to his success.
2. list and explain Mendel's laws of heredity
3. use a Punnett square to predict the results of a monohybrid cross and state the phenotypic and genotypic ratios of the F2 generation.
4. distinguish between genotype and phenotype; heterozygous and homozygous; dominant and recessive.
5. explain how a testcross can be used to determine if a dominant phenotype is homozygous or heterozygous.
6. state Mendel's law of independent assortment.
7. use a Punnett square to predict the results of a dihybrid cross and state the phenotypic
and genotypic ratios of the F2 generation.
8. using the laws of probability, predict the results of dihybrid and trihybrid crosses.
9. state several; examples of incomplete dominance and explain this it is not evidence for the blending theory of inheritance.
10. explain how phenotypic expression of a heterozygote is affected by complete dominance, incomplete dominance codominance.
11. describe the inheritance of the ABO blood system and explain why the IA and IB alleles are said to be codominant.
12. define and give examples of pleiotropy.
13. explain the term epistasis.
14. explain how epistasis affects the phenotypic ratio for a dihybrid cross.
15. describe a simple model for polygenic inheritance, explain why most polygenic characters are described in quantitative terms.
16. describe how environmental conditions can influence the phenotypic expression of a character.
17. given a simple family pedigree, deduce the genotypes for some of the family members.
18. describe the inheritance and expression of cystic fibrosis, Tay-Sachs disease, and sickle-cell disease.
19. explain how a lethal recessive gene can be maintained in a population.
20. explain why consanguinity increases the probability of homozygosity in offspring.
21. explain why lethal dominant genes are much more rare than lethal recessive genes.
22. give an example of a late-acting lethal dominant in humans explain how it can escape elimination.
23. explain how carrier recognition, fetal testing and newborn screening can be used in genetic screening and counseling.
24. explain why Drosophila melanogaster is a good experimental organism.
25. discuss linkage and explain why linkage interferes with independent assortment.
26. explain how crossing over can unlink genes.
27. map a linear sequence of genes on a chromosome using given recombination frequencies from experimental crosses.
28. describe sex determination in humans.
29. describe the inheritance of a sex-linked gene such as color-blindness or hemophilia
30. explain why a recessive sex-linked gene is always expressed in human males.
31. explain the difference between deletion, translocation, and inversion mutations.
32. distinguish among deletions, duplications, translocations, and inversions.
33. explain why cytoplasmic genes are not inherited in a Mendelian fashion.

Molecular Genetics Objectives- Chapter 16 Campbell (The Molecular Basis of Inheritance)

1. state two different nucleic acids.
2. recognize that nucleic acids are formed from nucleotide subunits.
3. describe the structure of the DNA molecule.
4. Summarize experiments performed by the following scientists, which provided evidence
that DNA is the genetic material; Frederick Griffith, Avery, McCarty, and McLeod, and Erwin Chargaff
5. List the three components of a nucleotide.
6. Distinguish between deoxyribose and ribose.
7. List the nitrogen bases found in DNA, and distinguish between pyrimidine and purine.
8. Explain how Watson and Crick deduced the structure of DNA, and describe how they used the evidence of Rosalind Franklin in doing this
9. Explain the "base-pairing rule" and describe its significance.
10. Describe the structure of DNA, and explain what kind of chemical bond connects the nucleotides of each strand and what type of bond holds the two strands together.
11. Explain the terms conservative, semiconservative replication, and dispersive replication
12. Describe the process of DNA replication, and explain the role of single strand binding protein.
13. Explain what energy source drives endergonic synthesis of DNA.
14. Define antiparallel, and explain why continuous synthesis of both DNA strands is not possible.
15. Distinguish between the leading strand and the lagging strand.
16. Explain how the lagging strand is synthesized.
17. Explain the role of DNA polymerase I, III, helicase, primase and ligase in the DNA replication process.

Chapter 17 Campbell (From Gene to Protein)

18. Describe Beadle and Tatum's experiments with Neurospora, and explain
the contribution they made to our understanding of how genes control metabolism.
19. Distinguish between "one gene—one enzyme" hypothesis and "one gene—one polypeptide," and explain why the original hypothesis was changed.
20. Explain how RNA differs from DNA.
21. In their own words, explain how information flows from the coding section of a gene to protein.
22. Distinguish between transcription and translation. 23. Define the terms codon and anticodon, and explain what relationship exists between the linear sequence
of codons on mRNA and the linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide.
24. Recognize the importance of the three stop codons and the one start codon.
25. Explain in what way the genetic code is redundant and unambiguous.
26. Explain the evolutionary significance of a nearly universal genetic code.
27. Explain the process of transcription including the three major steps of initiation, elongation, and termination.
28. Describe the general role of RNA polymerase in transcription.
29. Explain how RNA polymerase recognizes where transcription should begin.
30. Distinguish among mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.
31. Describe the structure of tRNA and explain how the structure is related to function.
32. Given a sequence of bases in DNA, predict the corresponding codons transcribed
on mRNA and the corresponding anticodons of tRNA.
33. Describe the structure of a ribosome, and explain how this structure relates to function.
34. Explain how proteins can be targeted for specific sites within the cell.
35. Explain how eukaryotic mRNA is processed before it leaves the nucleus.
36. Describe some biological functions of introns and gene splicing.
37. Explain why base-pair insertions/deletions usually have a greater effect than base-pair substitutions.