Understanding Genres and Literary Forms

Understanding Genres and Literary FormsPage | 1

Understanding Genres and Literary Forms

As mentioned previously, the Bible is composedof many individual books—a libraryof books. The types of books in theBible vary one from the other. The writingstyle of each book is different and there caneven be a variety of literary forms within onebook. Therefore, understanding the type ofliterature that you are reading is essential tograsping the author’s intention. All of thebooks of the Bible have something to say tous today about God’s relationship with people.Understanding the genres, literaryforms, and literary techniques used by thebiblical authors will be helpful for interpretingthe deeper meaning of the Scriptures.

The concept of genre and literary form isnot new. Bookstores organize books accordingto their genres. In general, the term genreis used to describe categories of literature,art, or music. The first step in correctly interpretingliterature is to know its genre. For example,fiction (invented narrative) must beread and understood differently than a computermanual (technical writing), or an autobiography(a written account of one’s ownlife). Literary forms are categories of smallerunits of text that can be used within a particulargenre. For example, the newspapergenre contains many literary forms, includingnational news stories, editorials, obituaries,sports stories, and classified ads. Even ifyou do it unconsciously, you must recognizethe literary form of the newspaper item thatyou are reading in order to understand itproperly. This is also true of the biblical text,which contains many different genres and literaryforms such as prose, poetry, myth, lawcodes, historical narrative, didactic (teaching)narrative, parable, and miracle stories. Itis valuable to examine the major genres andliterary forms that are used in the Bible.

Genres and LiteraryForms Found inthe Old Testament

Sacred Myths, Etiologies,and Legends

Most people have only one definition formyth, assuming that it is a story once thoughtto be true, but now proven to be false as inthe example of the ancient belief that theearth was flat. Defining myth this way wouldthen imply that this type of literature wouldnever appear in the Bible because the Biblecontains the truth revealed by God.

However, myth can be understood in morethan one way. One of the most helpful definitionsis provided by Margaret Nutting Ralph:“A myth is an imaginative story that usessymbols to speak about reality, but a realitythat is beyond a person’s comprehension. Societiescompose myths to orient themselvesin a moral and spiritual world” (And God SaidWhat?, p. 29). In the opening eleven chaptersof Genesis (also called the primeval history),the authors employ this notion of myth forunderstanding Creation—not how it happenedbut why and for what purpose. The authorsuse symbols and images that arecomprehensible to their own people in theirown time to explore a truth that is beyond humancomprehension. There are actually twoCreation accounts in the Book of Genesis.The first appears in Genesis 1:1—2:4; the secondis Genesis 2:4–25. These two stories arevery different and yet the meaning and messageis the same. At the heart of both of theseCreation myths is a sacred truth, namely, thatGod is the source of all Creation, that all Creationwas made good and beautiful, that humanbeings are created in the “image andlikeness” of God, and that God commandedhumanity to be good stewards of God’s Creation.

Etiology is a literary form that is employedregularly in Genesis. In their book The OldTestament, Stephen Harris and Robert Platznerdefine etiologies as narratives that are intendedto explain the origin or cause of somesocial custom, natural phenomenon, or religiousritual. However, etiologies should neverbe understood as historical or scientificfacts but as narratives that explain the meaningor significance of something. For example,the tower of Babel story (Gn 11:1–9)explains the origin of languages, not historically,but symbolically. In the beginning, thebiblical author writes, all peoples spoke thesame language, but when they built the towerof Babel in an attempt to go up to God’sdwelling place, God confused their languagesso they would never again be able to work togetherto do such a thing. Thus this story ofthe origin of languages teaches a profoundtruth: God is God and humans are not. Likewise,God’s resting on the seventh day of Creation(Gn 2:2) is intended to emphasize thesignificance of the Sabbath as a day of rest.

Etiologies are also used to explain the originof names and places. For example, Genesis19:30–38 recounts the narrative of Lot andhis daughters. The daughters ply their fatherwith wine so that they can lie with him. Thedaughters both conceive and give birth tosons, Moab and Ammon. Conceived by deception,these boys are the progenitors of theMoabites and the Ammonites who becomethe rivals of Israel. There are many other examplesof etiologies found in the Old Testament.

Another narrative form that appears withfrequency in the Hebrew Bible is legend.Legends are based in history. However, legendsare different from history insofar as historyinvolves the retelling of past eventsabout which there is a written record or thedetails can otherwise be documented as factual,whereas legend does not. Many of thelegends that are found in the Hebrew Bibleare based on oral traditions and, for the mostpart, they could be described as folktales.These stories were passed on orally throughmany generations, so the telling and retellingalso affect the nature of the stories. Legendsare characterized by exaggeration, the use ofmagical details, etiologies, and the folk customsof the storytellers. Thus, legends arenot necessarily factual. However, they werepreserved because they convey importanttruths. In the case of the Hebrew Bible, legendsare frequently a means for God’s revelation.

The stories of Israel’s ancient ancestors recountedin Genesis chapters 12 through 50have all the characteristics of legends. Theycontain the stories of betrothal and hospitality,of the naming of sacred places, and theyrecall the origin of family tribes. More important,God is revealed in these stories. The relationshipof God and God’s People isestablished through a sacred Covenant,which is renewed with each of the great patriarchsand matriarchs—Abraham and Sarah,Isaac and Rebecca, and Jacob and his wivesand sons. These wonderful stories speak tous of God and set the stage for what is to followin the Scriptures.

Hebrew Poetry

Examples of Hebrew poetry abound in theOld Testament. Scholars suggest up to one-thirdof the Hebrew Bible is written in poeticform, and some of the most beautiful examplesare in the Book of Psalms. The Psalter(Book of Psalms) contains one hundred andfifty individual psalms composed over a spanof approximately six centuries. They reflectthe prayerful expressions of their authors—at times ecstatic praise and at other times thedepths of despair. Scholars categorize thepsalms into several types: hymns or songs ofpraise, psalms of thanksgiving, laments (bothindividual and communal), royal psalms, andwisdom psalms. Although the psalms originatedas Jewish prayers, Christians today regularlyuse them in their worship services aswell.

In addition to the psalms, several otherbooks of the Old Testament contain a greatdeal of poetry. They differ, however, in thefact that they do not share the same subjectmatter. For example, the psalms were usedfor temple worship, but the Song of Songs(also called the Song of Solomon) is an eroticlove song about a woman searching for herbeloved. Other books like Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes,the Wisdom of Solomon, and Sirach,often called wisdom literature, deal withuniversal human concerns like the problemof suffering, how good people are rewarded,how the wicked are punished, and what itmeans to be wise or what it takes to be successfulin God’s eyes.

Like the poetry of other cultures of its day,Hebrew poetry has some distinctive characteristicsthat are different from our own poetry.Unlike our classic understandings ofmodern poetry that includes certain rhythmsand rhyming sounds, Hebrew poetry usesthought parallelisms. Biblical scholars haveidentified three commonly used thought parallelisms:synonymous, antithetical, and synthetic.Synonymous parallelism consists of aphrase or sentence followed by a phrase orsentence that has the same meaning, even ineach of its parts. Here is an example:

Have pity on me, Lord, for I am weak;

heal me, Lord, for my bones aretrembling (Ps 6:3).

Antithetical parallelism consists of aphrase or sentence followed by a phrase orsentence that is its opposite:

The lips of the wise disseminateknowledge,

but the heart of fools is perverted(Prv 15:7).

Finally, synthetic parallelism consists oftwo lines, the first of which is completed bythe second. Here is an example of two syntheticparallelisms, one following the other:

A shield before me is God

who saves the honest heart.

God is a just judge,

who rebukes in anger every day(Ps 7:11–12).

(For more examples see the introductionto the Book of Proverbs.)

Prophetic Literature

There are fifteen prophetic books in the HebrewBible: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and thetwelve minor prophets. Christians include theBook of Daniel among the prophets, but inthe Hebrew Bible it is included with the writings,since, for the most part, it is an apocalypticwork. In addition, several of thehistorical books (1 and 2 Samuel and 1 and2 Kings) contain stories about some of the earliestprophets like Elijah and Elisha, as well assome of the forms most often associated withprophecy—the oracle and symbolic acts.

The books of the writing prophets, ofwhich Amos is probably the earliest, are purportedto contain the words of the prophethimself as he or his secretary had writtenthem. Biblical scholars think that these oraclesoracles—brief, poetic utterances that contain amessage or pronouncement from God—firstcirculated as collections of sayings, whichwere later rearranged, edited, and expandedby the addition of narrative. After decadesand centuries of this kind of literary work, thewritings that we now call the prophetic bookscame into being.

The primary purpose of prophecy is tomake known God’s will for the people.Prophets serve as spokespersons for God orintermediaries between God and the people.God delivers the oracle to the prophet, sometimesin answer to a question or as a responseto a request for a sign, but always on God’sinitiative alone. That is, the prophet does notcontrol God’s word. At times prophecies havea predictive character, but that is not their primaryor exclusive purpose. Rather, their messagesfall into two categories: oracles ofjudgment or oracles of salvation. In an oracleof judgment, the prophet brings accusationagainst God’s People for failing to keep theCovenant. In an oracle of salvation, theprophet delivers God’s message of consolationin times of trouble and God’s promise torescue them from their suffering.

Often oracles are obscure and difficult tointerpret, because their meaning depends onthe historical and social situation in whichthey were given. Oracles can be as brief as aword or sentence, or they can be quite long.They can also take the form of reported visionsor dreams (Is chapter 6). They sometimesappear as songs of lament (Jer 14:1–10)or songs of love (Is chapter 40).

Some prophets used symbolic actions toreveal God’s message. In the opening chaptersof Ezekiel, the prophet engages in severaleye-catching actions. He dramatically cutshis hair and beard, scattering some of thehair to the wind, some he throws into the fire,some is attacked by sword, and finally a remnantis sewn into the hem of his garment. Thereader is told that the hair represents the fateof the people of Judah (see the introductionto Ezekiel). In a second striking display,Ezekiel is told to make a drawing of the cityof Jerusalem on a clay brick, build siege wallsagainst it, and arrange camps and batteringrams around it, once again acting out the fateof Israel. Later the prophet carries all that hehas in a sack as he crawls in and out of thecity through a hole in the wall. Each of theseactions is intended to tell the people what willhappen to them if they fail to return to livingfaithfully the Covenant.

Other Literary Forms

The writers of Old Testament literature useda variety of literary forms to evoke a responsefrom the reader and to express deep feelings.In addition to the ones we have already mentioned,we should add simile (comparisonsusing like or as), metaphor (comparisons thatdo not use like or as), parables (fictional narrativesthat involve a comparison and thatcontain some sort of surprising twist), allegory(objects or actions in a narrative that functionas a symbol of something else), andpersonification (giving human attributes toan idea or abstract concept).

There are many more literary forms thatappear with some regularity in the Old Testament:genealogies, narratives (fictional anddidactic), sagas, and debates. While this isnot a comprehensive list, it highlights the importanceof considering the literary formwhen interpreting a passage from the Scriptures.If you read carefully, you will recognizewhen the biblical author is using one or moreof these literary forms and you will be able tointerpret the text accordingly. Then you willsee the richness of this ancient literature andappreciate how it can be read with new eyesin every generation.

Genres and LiteraryForms Found inthe New Testament

The Gospels

The New Testament also contains a variety ofgenres and literary forms. The Gospels Accordingto Matthew, Mark, Luke, and Johnrepresent a unique literary genre whose originis unknown. Although it has some superficialsimilarities with the biography and thehistory, the Gospel genre is quite different.The Gospel is historical but the Gospel writerwas not intending to write a history. Somescholars think that the gospel—the termmeans “good news”—was developed by theearly Christian community to proclaim faithin Jesus Christ by telling the story of his life,death, and Resurrection, and how Jesus’ lifeand ministry had affected theirs. TheGospels as we know them evolved in stagesover several decades. Beginning with oral traditions,the stories of Jesus were gatheredtogether, written down, and eventuallyarranged and edited into the Gospels we havetoday. The Gospels in their final form containa variety of literary forms, some of which willbe explored here.

Parables and Allegories

One literary form that appears frequently inthe Gospels, especially in Matthew and Mark,is the parable. A parable is a fictional narrative(story) that functions like an extendedsimile or metaphor. Jesus’ parables often begin,“the kingdom of heaven is like . . .”(e.g., Mt 13:31). Since parables are essentiallyriddles, the story also must include an unexpectedtwist of events. This surpriseending is meant to bring the listener to a momentof discovery, but sometimes it is difficultfor us to appreciate the riddle because wedo not understand the cultural world in whichthe parable was originally told. Forexample, in the parable of the prodigal son(Lk 15:11–32), the graciousness of the fatheris shocking. This is a man who apparentlyhad wealth and great status in his community,and here he is waiting for and even runningafter his wayward son who had earliertold him that he was as good as dead in hiseyes because he asked for his inheritancewhile his father was still living. The son hadshamed his father by asking for his inheritance,and then the father shamed himself byreceiving back his son in such a generousway. Jesus used parables like this one as avery effective means of teaching.

On occasion parables can be interpreted asallegories. Allegories are stories with deeperlevels of meaning, in which every characteror event is a symbol for something else.Among the Gospel parables, the parable ofthe sower (Mt 13:3–9; Mk 4:3–9; Lk 8:5–8) isa good example of an allegory. After Jesustells the parable to the disciples, the narratorof the Gospel explains it to his disciples,demonstrating its allegorical nature. The seedthat is sown is the word of God. The placeswhere the seed falls represent the hearts ofbelievers and nonbelievers. One who hasfaith will see the true meaning of this story.Both parables and allegories are powerfulteaching tools that Jesus uses effectively inhis ministry. They invite us to deeper faith.

The Letters

The New Testament contains twenty-one letters.Thirteen of them are attributed to Paul.Of those thirteen, seven are considered to beauthentic letters of Paul (Pauline). The otherswere written anonymously, but attributed toPaul as a way of extending his memory tolater generations of Christians (Deutero-Pauline). Still others are attributed to variousapostles and leaders of the early Church, includingPeter, James, Jude, and John. The lettergenre follows a basic stylistic pattern thathas four elements: the opening formula, thethanksgiving, the body of the letter, and theclosing. This letter-writing format is notunique to the New Testament. Rather, it wasused by Jews, Greeks, and Romans for alltypes of written communication.

In the opening formula of a letter, the letterwriter first identifies himself, and then the intendedrecipients, followed by a blessing. Thethanksgiving section is next. In it, the letterwriter comments on his relationship to therecipients as a way of establishing rapport,and he also introduces the themes of the letter.The body of the letter contains the letterwriter’s message. It may contain a teaching,answers to the recipients’ questions, or evenethical exhortations. The conclusion of theseletters contains personal greetings, travel instructions,and a blessing.