Types of Pronouns; Their Formal and Semantic Properties; Their Syntactic Functions

(15) Pronouns

(Types of Pronouns; Their Formal and Semantic Properties; Their Syntactic Functions)

(15.1.1) Pronouns versus Nouns

-pronouns = replace nouns / noun phrases => lack a lexical meaning of their own

-PRO in contrast to N

(a)semantics

-a closed class system

(b)morphology

-case contrast for subject x object case

-person distinction

-gender contrast

(c)syntax

-determiners

-nominals

-functions of ADJ

-functions of ADV

(15.1.2) Grammatical Categories

-case, gender, number, person

(1)case

-N: common case x morphologically marked possessive case

-PRO: marked subject case x object case x possessive case (possessive PRO)

-x you and it not marked for case

-formal: PRO following the verb be, i.e. not followed by the finite Vform > subject case

-x colloquial: ... > object case: it’s all right, it’s only me

(2)gender

-manifested in 3rd person SG personal / reflexive / possessive PRO

-relative / interrogative PRO: personal (who) x non-personal gender (which)

(3)number

-manifested in special lexical entry: I > we; he / she / it > they

-x exceptional regular PL formation by the –(e)s ending: yourself > yourselves; other > others; one > ones

-demonstrative PRO: SG this > PL these; SG that > PL those

(4)person

-manifested in personal / reflexive / possessive PRO

-1st person = the speaker

-2nd person = the addressee

-3rd person = ‘the rest’

-colloquial: you / they = also with the meaning of a general human agent (you change three times / where do they sell it?)

-formal: we / one = ... (one doesn’t like to have one’s word doubted)

(15.1.3) Reference

-a linguistic context > anaphors = bound within the minimal domain by subject, need a co-referential antecedent

-a pragmatic c. > pronouns = free within the minimal domain x bound by clause-external context

-anaphoric reference = reference to an antecedent already mentioned in the clause before

-cataphoric r. = reference to an antecedent to be mentioned in the clause (absent in CZ)

Dušková Quirk / Greenbaum

(I) specific

(1)central(1) central

(a)personal: me, we, ... (a) personal

(b)reflexive: myself, ourselves, ...(b) reflexive

(c)possessive (c) possessive

(a’) determinative (pre-nominal): your, its, ...

(b’) independent (post-nominal): mine, hers, its?, ...

(2)reciprocal: each other, one another(d) reciprocal

(2) non-central

(3)relative: the wh- series, that(e) relative

(4)interrogative: the wh-series(f) interrogative

(5)demonstrative: this/that, these/those(g) demonstrative

(6)indefinite(II) indefinite

(a)positive

(a’) universal: all/both, each/every(h) universal

(b’) assertive: some-, one, half, several, enough, other, another(i) partitive

(c’) non-assertive: any-, either(j) quantifying

(b)negative: no-, neither

Central PRO: different syntactic functions x the same morphological features

(15.2.1) Personal Pronouns

-functions of 3rd per. SG it

(a)can replace a N with both definite and indefinite determination

-x ... N with an indefinite determination only with a co-referential antecedent: I’ve bought a new hat but my husband doesn’t like it

-... not a co-referential antecedent > the pro-form one: I’ve bought a new hat and Jane has bought one too

(b)a ‘place holder’ = a formal substitute in the position of the subject: it’s raining / snowing / warm

-CZ: one-member subjectless clauses x not possible in E

(15.2.2) Reflexive Pronouns

-SG -self or PL -selves + 1st and 2nd pers. PRO in possessive case

-... + 3rd per. PRO in object case

(1)non-emphatic use

-PRO co-referential with the subject = the action expressed by the verb passes from the subject back again to the subject

-typically takes the position of the object

-functions

(a)a direct object: he shaves himself

(b)an indirect object: she bought herself a new hat

(c)a part of the predicate: ah, that’s better, you’re yourself again

(d)used as an adjective: she wants a little time to herself

(e)used as an adverb: speak for yourself

(f)with reflexive verbs: absent oneself from, pride oneself on, behave yourself, introduce oneself, excuse oneself, underestimate oneself

(2)emphatic use

-PRO not necessarily co-referential with the subject

-typically takes the position of apposition > after the emphasised sentence member: the gift will be presented by the head-mistress herself

-pronounced with an emphatic stress

(15.2.3) Possessive Pronouns

(a)determinative = an attributive function (pre-nominal)

(b)independent = nominal function (post-nominal)

-E: possessives also used to refer to parts of the body (he broke his leg) x CZ: absent

-determinative possessives in complementary distribution with articles

-special structures

(a)the structure N + of + POSS when need to use another determiner besides the possessive: a friend of mine (implies one out of many)

(b)POSS in the function of subject: ours was not an intimate acquaintance

(15.2.4) Reciprocal Pronouns

-each other = implies only two

-one another = implies more than two

-x CZ: reciprocal pronouns identical with reflexive pronouns

(15.2.5) Relative Pronouns

-who (whom, whose), which, that

-compound relative pronouns: whichever, whatever, whoever

-distinction of person (who / that) x non-person (which / that)

-distinction of restrictive (who / which / that / 0) x non-restrictive (who / which)

-who: personal antecedent x whose: also non-persons (NOT the interrogative whose!)

-which: non-personal antecedent / sentence antecedent

-that: restrictive relative clause (they live in a house that was build in 1600)

-who / which: can be preceded by a PREP x that: the PREP postponed to the sentence end (here is the car about which I told you x here is the car that I told you about)

(15.2.6) Interrogative Pronouns

-who, which, what

-used to form questions

-functions: determiners (whose idea was it?) / nominals (whom did she marry?)

-distinction of person (who / which / what) x non-person (which / what)

-which (= which of): implies a choice from a restricted set of possibilities

-what (= what kind of): asks for characteristics or description

-what related to persons can refer only to the nominal part of the predicate (what is he [what’s his profession]? what is he like? x who is he [what’s his name]?)

-what: usually with a postponed PREP (what are you hinting at?)

(15.2.7) Demonstrative Pronouns

-SG this / that > PL these / those

-functions: both determiners (pass me that box please) / nominals (what is this?)

-this, these = ‘near’ reference x that, those = ‘distant’ reference

-this: both anaphoric (The story is greatly exaggerated. At least that’s what he told me.) and cataphoric reference (I know this much, that his story is greatly exaggerated.)

-that: anaphoric reference only

(15.2.8) Universal Pronouns

-all, every, every- (-one, -body, -thing), each, both

(1)all

-semantics: unity or collectivness

-co-occurrence: SG / PL; count / non-count; person / non-person

-function: determiner (all the money is spent) / nominal (all is lost)

(2)every

-semantics: individual items in a collective > with 3+ items

-co-occurence: SG; count; person / non-person

-function: determiner (the explosion broke every window in the street)

(3)each

-semantics: individuals items in a collective taken one by one > with 2+ items

-co-occurence: SG; count; person / non-person

-function: determiner (each person signed the paper) / nominal (each must do his best)

(4)both

-semantics > with 2 items

-co-occurence: PL; count; person / non-person

-function: determiner (both the men were found guilty) / nominal (both were found guilty)

(15.2.9) Partitive Pronouns (Quirk) / Existential and Negative Quantifiers (Dušková)

-some and its compounds (-body, -one, -thing)

-any and its compounds (...)

-no and its compounds (nobody, no one, nothing, none)

-other (the other, another, others, the others)

-either and neither

(1)some

-semantics: an indefinite quantity or number (PL or non-count: I spilt some milk on the table) / a particular but unidentified person or thing (SG count: some fool has overran my cat)

-co-occurrence: SG / PL; count / non-count; person / non-person

-function: determiner (he wants some money) / nominal (if you have no money, I lend you some)

-use: affirmatives, interrogatives when expecting affirmation

(2)any

-semantics: no matter what (emphatic use: come any day you like) / an indefinite quantity or number (non-emphatic use: is there any coffee left?)

-co-occurrence: SG / PL; count / non-count; person / non-person

-function: determiner / nominal

-use: negative sentences, interrogatives, conditionals

(3)no

-co-occurrence: SG / PL; count / non-count; person / non-person

-function: determiner (there is no coffee left)

(4)nobody, no one, nothing, none

-co-occurence: SG

-function: nominal (nothing happened)

(5)other

-form: a countable pronoun with inflectional morphology

-= the second of two: the other + SG verb / the other + SG noun (one of my brothers is named X, the other Y / give me the other book)

-= the remaining ones: the others + PL verb / the other + PL noun

-= different or additional ones: others + PL verb / other + PL noun (some like milk chocolate, others prefer plain chocolate / there are other ways of doing this)

(6)either / neither

-co-occurence: SG; countable; person / non-person

-function: determiner / nominal

-either = one or the other of two (either method can be used); both (I haven’t seen either of them)

-neither = not this and not the other (neither of the two statements is correct)

(15.2.10) Quantifying Pronouns

-many / few; much / little; several, enough, one

(1)many (more, most) / few

-co-occurence: PL; count

-function: determiner (have you many books?) / nominal (no, I have few)

(2)much (more, most) / little

-co-occurrence: SG; count / non-count

-function: determiner (we have not much time) / nominal (much has been said, and little done)

(3)several

-co-occurence: PL; countable

-function: determiner (I have seen several of them) / nominal (he made several mistakes)

(4)enough

-co-occurence: PL; countable / non-countable

-function: determiner (have you got enough food?) / nominal (yes, we have enough)

(5)one

-= a numerical stressed variant of the indefinite article: one boy disappeared yesterday

-= a substitute for a SG or PL countable noun: I thought you prefer large ones

-= a substitute for a general human agent: one can never be careful enough