A Brief History of Darfur
Darfur’s history is a complex story of between 40 and 90 different ethnic groups coexisting in the same general area. Simply put, Darfur is comprised of a complex mosaic of different peoples, mostly farmers and nomadic camel herders, who settled in the land and found a peaceful existence together. This independent existence flourished for many years, until the more recent past, during which the land has become the target of a number of different countries and leaders.
The history of Darfur, or at least the recorded history, finds its beginnings in the 14th century. During this time, the fertile land around the extinct volcano in the mountainous region known as Jebel Mara, land considered to be the heart of Darfur, was controlled by the Daju Dynasty, a dynasty about which little is known. Later, the land came into possession of the Tunur Dynasty, the group that brought Islam to the region. Here the current vision of Darfur, a mixed people of blurred Arab and African ancestry, finds its roots. Soon, though, Darfur came into its own name.
The kingdom of Darfur, or the Keyra Fur Sultanate as it was known, took shape during the 17th century, and lived in prosperity for nearly 200 years. During this time, its location led to Darfur’s commercial success as a trading hub. There one could find Mediterranean slaves, ivory, and ostrich feathers. Also, it was not uncommon to find the Fur Sultanate raiding neighbors and attempting to take over the surrounding regions. Darfur’s time of prosperity was indeed good, but like all golden ages, it met its end much too soon.
The mid-19th century began what was to be a parade of different external powers holding control over Darfur. First, a powerful slave trader known as Zubayr Rahma defeated Darfur’s sultan. He immediately lost control to the Ottoman Empire. The concurrent end of the Keyra Dynasty led to a time of lawlessness in Darfur. The country was a blur of bandits plaguing local communities, and Islamic ‘Mahdist’ forces trying to move Darfur into a larger Islamic republic against the attempts of Britain to set up colonial control. The region was in constant chaos until 1899 when the Egyptians, under British Control, recognized Ali Dinar, the grandson of a Keyra sultan, as the Sultan of Darfur. Thus, Darfur found a brief independence once again.
This renewed independence met its end as British forces took over the land in November 1916, killing Ali Dinar who had refused to submit to them. At this point Darfur became a part of the British Empire, more specifically a part of Sudan. When the British granted Sudan independence in 1956, Darfur (like southern Sudan) found itself ignored by the northern Arabs who took and maintained power in the Sudan. This triggered the North-South War, and the recurring attempts at peace (See "A Brief History of the Conflict in Sudan").
Throughout these conflicts Darfur found itself involved in the wars and conflicts that flowed throughout the Sudan. Adding to the tension was the use of Darfur by the Libyan army as a military base for the Islamist wars in Chad. This led to a sense of Arab supremacy in the area, put a massive amount of weaponry in the area, and sparked the Arab-Fur war from 1987-1989. During this war, thousands of native Darfurians were killed and their villages were burned to the ground. Following this, the National Islamic Front took control of the Sudan, led by General Omar al-Bashir, and this in turn led to the more current history in which the stories Darfur and Sudan become one.
What is going on in Darfur?
Darfur, located in Sudan (Africa's largest country), is about the size of the state of Texas. Sudan has been in constant turmoil since its independence from the United Kingdom in 1956, and since 2003 there has been an ongoing "civil war", which many regard as a genocide or ethnic cleansing backed by government officials. Those who are identified as non-Arab citizens have been the chief victims of this civil war. Their camps are pillaged, their women and children raped, and their men killed by the Janjaweed militia fighters.
The Janjaweed and Sudanese military, paramilitary, and police have employed a wide range of tactics against the civilian population of Darfur. These include aerial bombings with planes and helicopters, heavy shelling by tanks and other artillery, ground attacks with small arms on foot, on camels and horseback, the bulldozing and burning of villages, arrests and extrajudicial execution, kidnapping, torture, and rape.
Rape has also been used as a weapon in attacks on civilians both in villages and in IDP and refugee camps. Rape victims suffer not only trauma and the physical effects of rape, but also harassment and intimidation. When a pregnancy results from the rape, women and girls also sometimes face criminal charges." A quote taken from the International Crisis Group website tells us a bit about the forces imposed on the citizens of Darfur.
The "civil war" is said to have started after Sudanese president Omar Al Bashir instituted pro-Arab laws regarding who could use the small portion of sustainable land found in Sudan, and what it could be used for. Upon the institutionalization of these orders, non-Arab rebels, whose land was basically being snatched from beneath them, confronted the government on their decision. Al-Bashir, unhappy with this insurgency, began to use force in order to remove non-Arab farmers from their land (though he denies his involvement or alters his reason for force), which is the root of the current conflict in Darfur.
The role of the United Nations and the African Union
The United Nations was founded after World War II as an organization whose primary purpose is to assists with peacekeeping deals across the globe. Many can argue for either side of the United Nations and their interference with the Sudanese conflicts. Some believe the UN is doing all that it can in order to bring peace to the nation and applaud them for their assistance in finding refuge for displaced Sudanese citizens, providing funding to programs that offer food, water, shelter etc; While others feel that the UN is being too passive and that their efforts are nothing more that a band aid over a bullet wound. Many of these critics believe that decisions are being influenced by powers such as China, who may not want to risk angering Al-Bashir given the fact that China is a major oil customer of the Sudan.
The African Union, who's purpose is to eliminate colonization and apartheid on the continent, and to promote unity and safeguard the sovereignty of the African State, has been trying to work with the United Nations in order to create peacekeeping deals within the region. However, Sudanese officials have threatened to withdraw from the African Union if they allow the UN forces to enter Darfur. The Sudanese government is opposed to UN assistance, arguing that UN interference in the current conflict is an inappropriate intervention in Sudan’s national sovereignty. In addition to the United Nations, the African Union has sought the intelligence of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) for logistical assistance, but there are no NATO ground troops in the area.
Information taken from:
The War in Darfur: A Reference of the Most Important Players
The Government
Lieutenant General Omar Hassan al Bashir: President of Sudan since 1989, commander of the Sudan armed forces and leader of the National Congress Part. Ja’ali
Ali Osman Mohamed Taha: First Vice-president and the architect, with John Garang, of the North-South Comprehensive Peace Agreement. Shaygiyya.
Lieutenant General Nafie Ali Nafie: Assistant President, former Minister of Interior for External Intelligence. A regime hardliner.
Majzoub al Khalifa Ahmad: head of the government delegation to the Abuja peace talks. Killed in a car crash in July 2007.
Lieutenant General Mohamed Ahmad al Dabi: head of Darfur Security Arrangements Implementation Commission. Former head of military intelligence and external security, and President Bashir’s personal representative in Western Darfur in 1999.
Lieutenant General Ismat al Zain: head of Western Military Command and head of the Government security arrangements negotiating team at the Abuja peace talks.
Major General Salah Abdalla Abu Digin ‘Gosh’: head of the National Intelligence Security Service, liaison with the CIA and a key member of Sudan’s inner security circle.
Colonel Ahmed Mohamed Haroun: Minister of State for Humanitarian Affairs and liaison with UNAMID. Indicted by the ICC for crimes against humanity committed in Darfur in 2003-2004 in his capacity as Minister of State for the Interior and head of the Darfur Security Desk.
General Ibrahim Suleiman, governor of North Darfur 2001-2003 and former army chief of staff. Berti.
Major General Abdalla Safi al Nur: Minister at the Council of Ministers and former governor of North Darfur. Ereigat Arab from Kutum.
Tayeb Ibrahim ‘Sikha’: governor of Darfur 1990-1992 and responsible for crushing the SPLA (Sudan People’s Liberation Army) incursion.
Arab Leaders
Musa Hilal: leader of the Um Jalul clan of the Mahamid Arabs. In his own words ‘Mujahid, Sheikh and Amir of the Swift and Fearsome Forces’ based, under Sudan army control, in Mistiriha in North Darfur. Son of Sheikh Hilal Abdalla.
Ali Mohamed Ali Abdel Rahman ‘Kushayb’: indicted by the ICC as commander of the militia forces of Wadi Saleh, liaison with the Sudan government and a participant in murders, rape, and torture in 2003-2004.
Mohamed Hamdan Dogolo ‘Hemeti’: leader of the Mahariya Arab militia in the Nyala area of South Darfur who mutinied in October 2007 and rejoined the government in February 2008.
Mohamedein al Dud Hassaballa: leader of the Mahariya of North Darfur.
Saeed Madibu: Nazir of the Baggara Rizeigat of South Darfur and steadfastly neutral in the conflict.
Ali al Ghali: Nazir of the Habbaniya Arabs of South Darfur.
Al Hadi Issa Dabaka: Nazir of the Beni Halba Arabs of South Darfur; Raised a militia to fight the SPLA in 1991 but tried to remain neutral in 2003-2004. Died in 2007.
Northern Sudanese political leaders
Hassan al Turabi: Sudanese Islamist leader, head of the Popular Congress Party and eminence grise behind the regime 1989-99. Removed from power after disagreeing with President Bashir and subsequently a vigorous opponent of the government.
Ali al Haj Mohamed: leading Islamist from Darfur, Minister of Federal Affairs responsible for the administrative reform that divided Darfur into three states in 1994; later a leader of the Islamist opposition from abroad. Bornu.
Sadiq al Mahdi: leader of the Umma Party, Prime Minister 1986-89.
The Rebels: Sudan Liberation Army
Abdel Wahid Mohamed al Nur: Chairman of the SLA and, after its division, leader of the Fur wing based in Jebel Marra. Unchallenged spokesman for the Fur displaced despite rejecting the Darfur Peace Agreement and being self-exiled ever since in Paris.
Abdalla Abakir: first military commander of the SLA, killed by helicopter gunship attack in January 2004. Zaghawa/Ohuru.
Khamis Abdalla Abakir: Masalit Vice Chairman of the SLA, never clearly identified with any faction after the rebel movement divided. One of the first self-defense leaders in Dar Masalit.
Jar al Nabi Abdel Karim Younis: SLA commander in North Darfur who led the group of 19, or G19, break from SLA-Abdel Wahid in March 2006. Zaghawa/Kaitinga.
Ahmed Abdel Shafi: co-founder of the SLM. Leader of a breakaway Fur faction announced in July 2006 to demand structure and accountability in the rebel movement. Coordinator of the original SLA.
Juma Mohamed Hagar: Minni Minawi’s loyal military chief. Zaghawa/Dawa.
Suleiman Jamous: humanitarian coordinator of the SLA in North Darfur, arrested by Minni Minawi in May 2006 for opposing the Darfur Peace Agreement and joined SLA-Unity. Bideyat.
Suleiman Marajan: Meidob SLA commander arrested by Minni Minawi after attending the sixth round of Abuja peace talks.
Minni Arkoi Minawi: Senior Assistant to the President of Sudan. Abdel Wahid’s Zaghawa challenger for the chairmanship of the SLA and the only rebel leader to sign the Darfur Peace Agreement. Ila Digen.
The Rebels: the Justice and Equality Movement
Bahr Idriss Abu Garda: JEM Secretary General and former National Islamic Front official. Broke with Khalil Ibrahim in August 2007 in a clan-based split within the movement. Zaghawa Kobe.
Abdalla Banda: former businessman and JEM’s military commander until he joined Bahr Idriss in breaking with Khalil Ibrahim in 2007. Zaghawa Kobe.
Jibreel Ibrahim: adviser to Khalil Ibrahim, his brother and the head of JEM’s wealth sharing delegation at the Abuja peace talks.
Khalil Ibrahim: JEM Chairman and former senior regional official in the NIF. Refused to sign the Darfur Peace Agreement. Zaghawa Kobe.
Abdel Aziz Nur Osher: JEM Deputy Political Leader and Commander of the Eastern Front. Khalil Ibrahim’s half-brother. Zaghawa Kobe.
Abubaker Hamid Nur: JEM general coordinator and former NIF official. Zaghawa Kobe.
Ahmad Tugod Lissan: JEM chief negotiator at the Abuja talks. Zaghawa Kobe.
Taj al Din Bashir Nyam: JEM humanitarian coordinator and deputy chief negotiator at the Darfur peace talks in Abuja. Zaghawa Kobe.
Ibrahim Yahya: JEM speaker of Parliament and Chairman of the Executive Committee until he joined a pro-government faction after JEM rejected the Darfur Peace Agreement. Masalit.
The rebels: others
Ahmad Diraige: veteran Darfurian leader and governor 1981-83, head of the opposition Sudan Federal Democratic Alliance. Fur.
Sharif Harir: academic and opposition leader based in Eritrea. Foreign affairs spokesman of the SLA-Unity and former deputy head of the SFDA. Zaghawa.
Sudan People’s Liberation Army
John Garang: Chairman and Commander-in-Chief of the SPLA until his death in 2005.
Daud Bolad: former Islamist from Darfur who joined the SPLA and died leading an ill-fated military expedition into Darfur in 1991. Fur.
Yasir Arman: most prominent Northern Sudanese within the SPLA, responsible for the Darfur file.
Abdel Aziz Adam al Hilu: SPLA commander, of mixed Masalit-Nuba parentage, military commander for the 1991 SPLA mission and subsequently in charge of military training for Darfurians in the SPLA.
Adam Mohamed Musa ‘Bazooka’: Chadian Masalit soldier who joined the SPLA and died fighting in Darfur in January 2004.
Chad
Idriss Deby: President of Chad since 1991, formerly military commander. Zaghawa.
Hissene Habre: President of Chad 1979-81 and 1983-91, strongly anti-Arab, fought against Libya. Goraan.
Acheikh Ibn Omar Saeed: Chadian Arab, Commander in the Libyan Islamic Legion and head of the Conseil Democratique Revolutionnaire, involved in the first Arab-Fur war of 1987-89.
Source:
Flint, J. & Waal, D.A. (2008). Darfur: a new history of a long war. New York: Zed Books.
What makes intervening in Darfur so complicated? - A Brief History of the Conflict in Sudan
Darfur is the name that you see in the headlines, and the Darfuri are the people that celebrities are ask us to help ‘save.’ However, more often than not the average person is unaware of the fact that Darfur is not a country, but a region in the western part of the Republic of Sudan. While the media has attempted to report on the genocide in Darfur, it has inevitably blurred the current conflict with the numerous tensions that have almost always been present in the region. To best understand the problems of Darfur, one must first step back to look at the historical conflicts of the country it is a part of.
Sudan, Africa’s largest country, is also one of the world’s most unstable. One of its largest and oldest conflicts lies in the chasm between those who reside in the northern part of Sudan and those who reside in the south. Sudanese northerners, including most of those in the capital city of Khartoum, are Arab Muslims. Sudanese southerners are non-Arab sub-Saharans who belong to traditional African tribes and religions, or practice Christianity. The common misconception is that the feud is between Arabs and Blacks, yet the truth is that everyone in this conflict is Black. It is a religious/ethnic conflict, not a racial one. This divide has fueled the civil war.
Though Sudan has a long history of tribal feuds and battles for control, for our purposes the first significant event came on January 1st, 1956. On this date, an independent Sudanese state emerged, with the approval both of Egypt and Britain, each of whom had at times occupied the land. However, a year before the Sudan declared independence, conflict had begun. Southern Sudanese, who saw independence coming, feared that the northern Arabs, who had closer ties with the former ruling forces of Egypt, would unfairly rule their independent country. This conflict, known as the first Sudanese civil war, lasted from 1955 until the Addis Ababa Agreement of 1972, which brought forth a ten-year peace by granting southern Sudan autonomy – the right to self-government.