The Quantity of E-Waste Generated in Developed Countries Equals 1% of Total Solidwaste

INTRODUCTION

The electronic industry is the world’s largest and fastest growing manufacturing industry in the world. The increasing “market penetration” in developing countries,“replacement market” in developed countries and “high obsolescence rate” of electrical and electronic goods makeelectrical and electronic waste (e-waste) one of the fastest growing waste streams.E-wasteis valuable source for secondary raw material but harmful if treated and discarded improperly as it contains many toxic components such as lead, cadmium, mercury, polychlorinated biphenlysetc. (Bandyopadhyay, 2010).

The quantity of e-waste generated in developed countries equals 1% of total solidwaste on an average and is expected to grow to 2% by 2010 (UNEP Manual, 2007).In United States alone, 1,30,000 computers and 3,00,000 cell phones are trashed each day (Anderson, 2010).The developed countries use most of the world’s electronic products and generate most of the E-waste (Basel Action Network, 2002). Rather than treat e-waste in an environmentally friendly manner, the developed countries are finding an easy way out of the problem by exporting these wastes to developing economies especially, South Asian countries (Basel Action Network, 2002).

The import of e-waste to the developing countries is in violation of the ban imposed by Basel Convention on the Control ofTransboundary Movements of HazardousWastes and their Disposal, as e-waste come under the definition of hazardous waste (Basel Convention, 1992).Following this, our country, a party to the convention, banned the import of hazardous waste including e-waste into the country. But a major source of e-waste in India is illegal imports(Sathish, 2006).

The major portion of the e-waste generated domestically as well as illegally imported are recycled in crude manner leading to pollution of the environment. Lack of legislation in our country at present is aiding this hazardous form of recycling. Therefore there is urgent need to frame and implement rules for regulating this waste and to find environmentally sound, economically viable methods for recycling and disposing of this necessary evil. The necessity of environmentally sound management of e-waste is brought out with the help of a case study of uncontrolled dumping of e-waste.

E-WASTE

E-waste is the popular name for discarded electrical and electronic equipment with all of their peripherals at the end of their life.E-waste comprises of wastes generated from used electronic devices and household appliances which are not fit for their original intended use and are destinedfor recovery, recycling or disposal. Such wastes encompasses wide range of electrical and electronic devices such as computers, hand held cellular phones,personal stereos, including large household appliances such as refrigerators, airconditioners etc.

2.1 MAJOR SOURCES

Individuals and Small Businesses: The useful span of a computer has come down to about two years due toimproved versions being launched about every 18 months. Often, new software is incompatible or insufficient with older hardware so that customers are forced to buy new computers.

Large corporations, Institutions and Government:Large users upgrade employee computers regularly.

Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs):OEMs generate e-waste when units coming off the production line do not meet quality standards, and must be disposed off. Some of the computer manufacturers contract with recyclingcompanies to handle their electronic waste, which often is exported.

Besides computers, other major e waste source is the cellular phone.

2.2 INDIAN SCENARIO

The electronics industry has emerged as the fastest growing segment of Indianindustry both in terms of production and exports. The share of software servicesin electronics and IT sector has gone up from 38.7 per cent in 1998-99 to 61.8percent in 2003-04. A review of the industry statistics show that in 1990-91,hardware accounted for nearly 50% of total IT revenues while software's sharewas 22%. The scenario changed by 1994-95, with hardware share falling to 38%and software share rising to 41%. This shift in the IT industry began withliberalization and the opening up of Indian markets together with which therewas a change in India’s import policies vis-à-vis hardware leading to substitutionof domestically produced hardware by imports.

By the end of financialyear 2005-06, India had an installed base of 4.64 million desktops, about 431thousand notebooks and 89 thousand servers. According to the estimates madeby the Manufacturers Association of Information Technology (MAIT), the IndianPC industry is growing at a 25% compounded annual growth rate.The e-waste inventory based on this obsolescence rate and installed base inIndia for the year 2005 has been estimated to be 146180.00 tonne. This isexpected to exceed 8,00,000tonne by 2012. There is a lack of authentic andcomprehensive data on e-waste availability for domestic generation of e-wasteand the various State Pollution Control Boards have initiated theexercise to collect data on e-waste generation.

Sixty-five cities in India generate more than 60% of the total e-waste generated inIndia. Ten states generate 70% of the total e-waste generated in India.Maharashtra ranks first followed by Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,West Bengal, Delhi, Karnataka, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Punjab in the listof e-waste generating states in India.

In our country, currently some units have registered with the Ministry of Environment and Forests as possessing environmentally sound management facilities for recycling of e-waste. The list of units registered with Ministry of Environment and Forests/Central Pollution Control Board as recyclers/reprocessors having environmentally sound management facilities is given below in table 2.1(Ministry of Environment and Forests, 2010):

Table 2.1List of Recyclers/Reprocessors having registration of the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India

Sl. No. / Name of the Unit / Waste permitted and Quantity allowed / Registration Valid up to
ANDHRA PRADESH
1 / Ramky E-waste Recycling Facility (Ramky Engineers Ltd.)
Maheswaram (M) R.R.Distt / e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of Hazardous Waste (Management,Handling &TransboundaryMovement) (HW(M,H&TM))Rule,2008 -10000 MTA / 28/07/2011
2 / Earth Sense Recycle Pvt. Ltd.
Rangareddy District / e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H&TM) Rule,2008- 1800 MTA / 30/08/2015
HARYANA
1 / Earth Sense Recycle Pvt. Ltd.
Gurgaon / e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H&TM) Rule,2008 - 1200 MTA / 29/08/2015
KARNATAKA
1 / Ash Recyclers, Unit-II
Bangalore / e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H& TM) Rule,2008 - 120 MTA / 01/12/2010
2 / New Port Computer Services (India) Private Limited,
Bangalore / e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H& TM) Rule,2008 – 500MTA / 31/01/2011
3 / EWaRDD& Co.,
Bangalore / e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H& TM) Rule,2008 – 600MTA / 04/03/2011
4 / E-R3 Solutions Pvt. Ltd.,
Bangalore / e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H& TM) Rule,2008 – (only printer cartridge) – 1,20,000 units / 17/05/2011
Maharashtra
1 / Eco Recycling Limited,
Thane / e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H& TM) Rule,2008 – 7200MTA / 25/04/2011
2 / Earth Sense Recycle Pvt. Ltd.,
Thane / e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H& TM) Rule,2008 – 360MTA / 27/10/2010
3 / Hi Tech Recycling India (P) Ltd.,
Pune / e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H& TM) Rule,2008 – 500MTA / 29/04/2011
RAJASTHAN
1 / Green Eco Management Pvt. Ltd., Alwar / e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H& TM) Rule,2008 – 450MTA / 04/03/2011
TAMILNADU
1 / Trishyiraya Recycling India Pvt. Ltd., Chennai / e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H& TM) Rule,2008 – 740MTA / 01/12/2010
2 / TESAMM Private Limited,
Kancheepuram / e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H& TM) Rule,2008 –30,000MTA / 08/12/2010
3 / Global E-waste Management and Services, Kancheepuram / e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H& TM) Rule,2008 – 387 MTA / 02/05/2011
UTTAR PRADESH
1 / TIC Group India Pvt. Ltd.,
Noida / e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H& TM) Rule,2008 – 1000 MTA / 01/12/2010
UTTARKHAND
1 / Attero Recycling Private Limited,
Haridwar / e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H& TM) Rule,2008 – 12,000 MTA / 15/07/2011

CLASSIFICATION OF E-WASTE

3.1COMPONENTSOF E-WASTE

E-waste has been categorized into three main categories, viz. large household appliances, IT and Telecom and consumer equipment. Refrigerator and washing machine represent large household appliances, personal computer monitor and laptop represent IT and Telecom, while television represents consumer equipment. Each of these e-waste items has been classified withrespect to twenty six common components, which could be found in them. Thesecomponents form the “building blocks” of each item and therefore they arereadily “identifiable” and “removable”. These components are metal, motor/compressor, cooling, plastic, insulation, glass, (Liquid Crystal Display) LCD, rubber, wiring/ electrical,concrete, transformer, magnetron, textile, circuit board, fluorescent lamp,incandescent lamp, heating element, thermostat, BFR-containing plastic,batteries, fluorocarbons (CFC/HCFC/HFC/HC), external electric cables, refractory ceramic fibers,radioactive substances and electrolyte capacitors. The kindsof components, which are found in refrigerator, washing machine, personalcomputers (PC) and televisions, are described in table 3.1.

From table 3.1 it can be seen that the range of different items seen in e-waste is diverse. However, e-waste from these items can be dismantled into relatively smaller number of common components for further treatments.

Table 3.1 Componentsof E-waste

Metal / Motor/ compressor / Cooling / Plastic / Insulation / Glass / CRT / LCD / Rubber / Wiring/electrical / Concrete / Transformer / Magnetron / Textile / Circuit board / Fluorescent lamp / Incandescent lamp / Heating element / Thermostat / BFR containing plastic / Batteries / CFC,HCFC,HFC,HC / Electric cables / Refractory ceramic fibres / Radioactive substances / Electrolyte capacitors
Large household appliances
Refrigerator / √ / √ / √ / √ / √ / √ / - / - / √ / √ / - / - / - / - / - / - / √ / - / √ / √ / - / √ / √ / - / - / -
Washing
Machine / √ / √ / - / √ / - / √ / - / - / √ / √ / √ / - / - / - / √ / - / - / √ / √ / - / - / - / √ / - / - / º
IT & Telecom
Personal
Computer
(base & keyboard) / √ / √ / - / √ / - / - / - / - / - / √ / - / √ / - / - / √ / - / - / - / - / - / √ / - / √ / - / - / -
Personal
Computer
(monitor) / - / - / - / √ / - / - / √ / √ / - / - / - / - / - / - / √ / - / - / - / - / - / - / - / √ / - / - / -
Laptop / - / √ / - / √ / - / - / - / √ / √ / - / - / √ / √ / - / - / - / √ / √ / - / √ / - / √ / - / - / -
Consumer equipment
Television / √ / - / - / √ / - / - / √ / - / - / √ / - / √ / - / - / √ / - / - / - / - / √ / - / - / √ / - / - / -

3.2 COMPOSITION OF E-WASTE

Composition of e-waste is very diverse and differs in products across differentcategories. It contains more than 1000 different substances, which fall under“hazardous” and “non-hazardous” categories. Broadly, it consists of ferrous andnon-ferrous metals, plastics, glass, wood & plywood, printed circuit boards, concrete and ceramics, rubber and other items. Iron and steel constitutes about50% of the e-waste followed by plastics (21%), non ferrous metals (13%) andother constituents. Non-ferrous metals consist of metals like copper, aluminiumand precious metals e.g. silver, gold, platinum, palladium etc. The presence ofelements like lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium, selenium and hexavalentchromium and flame retardants beyond threshold quantities in e-waste classifiesthem as hazardous waste.The possible constituents of concern found in the three main categories described in 3.1 are given in table 3.2.

Table 3.2 Possible Hazardous Substances in Components of E-waste

Component / Possible hazardous content
Metal
Motor/compressor
Cooling / Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)
Plastic / Phthalate plasticizer, brominated flame retardants (BFR)
Insulation / Insulation ODS in foam, asbestos, refractory ceramic fiber
Glass
Cathode Ray Tube / Lead, Antimony, Mercury, Phosphor
Liquid Crystal Display / Mercury
Rubber / Phthalate plasticizer, BFR
Wiring / electrical / Phthalate plasticizer, BFR, Lead
Concrete
Transformer
Circuit Board / Lead, Beryllium, Antimony, BFR
Fluorescent lamp / Mercury, Phosphorous, Flame retardants
Incandescent lamp
Heating element
Thermostat / Mercury
BFR-containing plastic / BFRs
Batteries / Lead, Lithium, Cadmium, Mercury
CFC,HCFC,HFC,HC / ODS
External electric cables / BFRs, plasticizers
Electrolyte capacitors / Glycol, other unknown substances

The substances within the above mentioned components, which cause mostconcern are the heavy metals such as lead, mercury, cadmium and chromium(VI), halogenated substances (e.g. CFCs), polychlorinated biphenyls, plasticsand circuit boards that contain brominated flame retardants (BFRs). BFR cangive rise to dioxins and furans during incineration. Other materials andsubstances that can be present are arsenic, asbestos, nickel and copper. Thesesubstances may act as catalysts to increase the formation of dioxins duringincineration.

3.3 HEALTH EFFECTS OF SOME COMMON CONSTITUENTS IN E-WASTE

The health effects of heavy metals and certain compounds found commonly in components of e-waste are described below:

3.3.1. Lead

Lead is used in glass panels and gaskets in computermonitors and in solder in printed circuit boards and other components.

Lead causes damage to the central andperipheral nervous systems, blood systems, kidneyand reproductive system in humans. It alsoaffects the endocrine system, and impedes braindevelopment among children. Lead tends to accumulatein the environment and has high acuteand chronic effects on plants, animals andmicro organisms (Metcalf & Eddy, 2003).

3.3.2. Cadmium

Cadmium occurs in surface mounted device (SMD) chip resistors, infra-reddetectors, and semiconductor chips. Some older cathode ray tubes containcadmium.

Toxic cadmium compounds accumulatein the human body, especially the liver,kidneys pancreas, thyroid (Metcalf & Eddy, 2003, Basel Action Network, 2002).

3.3.3. Mercury

It is estimated that 22 % of the yearly worldconsumption of mercury is used in electricaland electronic equipment. Mercury is used in thermostats, sensors,relays, switches, medical equipment, lamps,mobile phones and in batteries. Mercury, used in flat panel displays, will likelyincrease as their use replaces cathode raytubes.

Mercury can cause damage to central nervous system as well as thefoetus. The developing foetus is highly vulnerableto mercury exposure (Metcalf & Eddy, 2003). When inorganic mercuryspreads out in the water, it is transformed to methylatedmercury which bio-accumulates in livingorganisms and concentrates through the foodchain, particularly via fish (Basel Action Network, 2002).

3.3.4. Hexavalent Chromium/Chromium VI

Chromium VI is used as corrosion protector ofuntreated and galvanized steel plates and as adecorative or hardener for steel housings.

Chromium VI can cause damage to DNA and isextremely toxic in the environment. Long term effects are skin sensitization and kidney damage(Metcalf & Eddy, 2003).

3.4.5. Plastics (including PVC)

The largest volume of plastics (26%) used inelectronics has been poly vinyl chloride (PVC). PVC elements arefound in cabling and computer housings. Many computer moldings are now made withthe somewhat more benign acrylonitrile butadiene (ABS) plastic. Dioxinsare releasedwhen PVCis burned (Basel Action Network, 2002)..

3.4.6 Brominated Flame Retardants (BFRs)

BFRs are used in the plastic housings of electronicequipment and in circuit boards to preventflammability. BFRs are persistent in the atmosphere and show bioaccumulation. Concerns are raised considering their potential to toxicity (Basel Action Network, 2002).

3.4.7. Barium

Barium is a soft silvery-white metal that is usedprotect users from radiation.

Studies have shown that short-term exposureto barium causes brain swelling, muscleweakness, damage to the heart, liver, and spleen(Basel Action Network, 2002).

3.4.8. Beryllium

Beryllium is commonly found on motherboardsand finger clips.

Exposure to beryllium can cause lungcancer. Beryllium also causes a skin disease thatis characterised by poor wound healing and wartlikebumps. Studies have shown that people candevelop beryllium disease many years followingthe last exposure.It is used as a copper-beryllium alloy tostrengthen connectors.

Barium is a soft silvery-white metal that is used to protect users from radiation.

3.4.9. Phosphor and additives

Phosphor is an inorganic chemical compoundthat is applied as a coat on the interior of theCRT faceplate. Phosphor affects the displayresolution and luminance of the images that isseen in the monitor.

The phosphor coatingon cathode ray tubes contains heavy metals,such as cadmium, and other rare earth metals, forexample, zinc, vanadium as additives. These metalsand their compounds are very toxic. This is aserious hazard posed for those who dismantleCRTs by hand.

3.4.NEED FOR GUIDELINES FOR ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND MANAGEMENT

The saying waste is misplaced wealth is true in the case of e-waste. The recyclability of e-waste and the precious metals that can be extracted from the waste make recycling a lucrative business. But recycling using environmentally sound means costly business and so majority of the e-waste is recycled via the informal sector. Informal recycling involves minimal use of technology and is carried out in the poorer parts of big cities. The standard recycling drill involves physically breaking down components often without any protective gear, burning poly vinyl chloride (PVC) wires to retrieve copper, melting of lead and mercury laden parts. The extraction of gold and copper requires acid processing. The plastic parts, which contain brominated flame retardants (BFR) are also broken into small pieces prior to recycle. All these processes release toxic fumes into the atmosphere and polluted water into soil and water bodies leading to contamination. Most of those who work in the recycling sector are the urban poor with low literacy lacking awareness of the hazards of the toxic e-wastes. Children and women are routinely involved in the operations. Most of the work is done by bare hands. Waste components which do not have resale value are openly burnt or disposed off in open dumps (Kurian, 2007).

Rapid pace of product obsolescence resulting in short life span of computers and other electronic equipments coupled with exponential increase in consumption of such products will result in the doubling of waste over next five to six years. The toxicity of constituents in e-waste, lack of environmentally sound recycling infrastructure and the large scale current practice of informal recycling highlight the urgent need for guidelines for environmentally sound management of e-waste.

METHODOLOGY FOR ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND MANAGEMENT OF E-WASTE

4.1. E-waste Composition and Recycle Potential

The composition of e-waste and its recyclable potential is specific for eachappliance. In order to handle this complexity, the parts/materials found in e-wastemay be divided broadly into six categories as follows:

Iron and steel, used for casings and frames

Non-ferrous metals, especially copper used in cables, and aluminum

Glass used for screens, windows

Plastic used as casing, in cables and for circuit boards

Electronic components

Others (rubber, wood, ceramic etc.)

Overview of the composition of the appliances in the three categories mentioned earlier is given in table 4.1.

Table 4.1 AverageWeight and Composition of Selected Appliances (Typical)

Appliances / Average weight (kg) / Fe % weight / Non Fe- metal % weight / Glass % weight / Plastic % weight / Electronic components % weight / Others % weight
Refrigerators and freezers / 48 .0 / 64.4 / 6 .0 / 1.4 / 13 .0 / 0.2 / 15.0
Personal computer / 29.6 / 20.0 / 24 / 15 / 23.0 / 17.3 / 0.7
TV sets / 36.2 / 5.3 / 5.4 / 62 / 22.9 / 0.9 / 3.5

The recovery potential (typical values) of items of economic value from refrigerator, personal computer and television are given in tables 4.2, 4.3, 4.4 respectively.

Table 4.2 RecoverableQuantity of Materials in a Refrigerator

Material Type / % (by weight)
CFCs / 0.20
Oil / 0.32
Ferrous Metals / 46.61
Non-Ferrous Metals / 4.97
Plastics / 13.84
Compressors / 23.80
Cables/Plugs / 0.55
Spent Foam / 7.60
Glass / 0.81
Mixed Waste / 1.30
Total / 100.00

Table 4.3 Recoverable Quantity of Materials in a Personal Computer