Qin Dynasty:

  • Although short-lived, the Qin dynasty was important because of its principal ruler, Shi Huangdi, which means “The First Emperor.”
  • The Qin Dynasty lasted from 221 B.C.E. to 206 B.C.E.
  • Shi Huangdi turned the Qin state – which many historians believe gave the country its name of “China” – into a dictatorial, tightly centralized nation.
  • He also modernized the Chinese army by introducing iron weapons, crossbows, and cavalry warfare.
  • Shi Huangdi ordered the implementation of a uniform system of writing as well as weights and measures.
  • Shi Huangdi used forced labor to build thousands of miles of roads, as well as the first of the structures that collectively came to be known as the Great Wall of China.
  • Shi Huangdi endorsed the philosophy of Legalism; a Chinese philosophy of harsh punishments and strict laws.
  • Many of the political features that the Qin handed down to later dynasties – among them the concept of a strong emperor and the importance of a large bureaucracy – became basic institutions of the Chinese state for centuries afterward.
  • The Qin state survived the death of Shi Huangdi by only four years.

The Han Dynasty:

  • Then, in 206 B.C.E., after a rebellion, a new dynasty, the Han, rose up to become one of China’s strongest and longest lasting.
  • The Han Dynasty lasted from 206 B.C.E. – 220 C.E.
  • Building on the foundations of Shi Huangdi’s Qin state, the Han dynasty created a powerful, efficiently governed empire.
  • Especially under the Emperor Wu (140 – 87 B.C.E.), Han armies expanded hundreds of miles to the west, north, and south.
  • They took over and absorbed all of Inner China, much of Outer China, parts of Southeast Asia (including northern Vietnam), portions of Korea and Manchuria, and inner Mongolia.
  • Like the Qin before them, Han rulers put into place an effective administration, postal service, and tax-collecting system.
  • The Han endorsed the philosophy of Confucianism and established the examination system, a system for selecting government officials based on merit (a meritocracy).
  • They built roads, defensive fortifications (enlarging the so-called Great Wall), and canals to link the country’s major rivers (particularly the Yellow and Yangtze).
  • During most of the Han dynasty, the economy was strong, spurred by improved agricultural techniques and China’s monopoly on silk production.
  • By 200 C.E., however, the Han state was in decline.
  • A downturn in agricultural production and an overall economic slump sapped its strength.
  • Government corruption and weak leadership also weakened the dynasty.
  • Outside invaders, bandits, and rebels on the frontiers made it difficult for the Han to protect their borders.
  • In 220 C.E., the Han dynasty collapsed.
  • It has become increasingly common for historians to draw parallels between the Han and Roman empires, which existed at roughly the same time, and became large and powerful by similar combinations of conquest and effective administration.
  • Over the next three and a half centuries, several minor dynasties rose and fell, while China itself was mired in a state of chaos and anarchy.
  • Not until 589 C.E. did a strong dynasty rise up to reestablish order.

The Sui Dynasty:

  • The Sui Dynasty lasted from 589 – 618 C.E.
  • It reunified China after nearly four centuries of fragmentation.
  • Despite its short span, it reunified China and expanded its borders in a tremendous burst of military conquest.
  • It reestablished the examination system and endorsed Confucianism.

The Hittites:

  • From approximately 1500 B.C.E. onward, the ancient Middle East witnessed the rise and fall of a number of important civilizations besides the Egyptians and the peoples of Mesopotamia.
  • Many of them made noteworthy contributions.
  • Although they did not invent the science of ironworking, the Hittites, who appeared in Mesopotamia around 1700 B.C.E. and dominated the region in the 1200s B.C.E., were very likely the first group to make systematic use of iron weapons.

The Assyrians and Neo-Babylonians:

  • Even more powerful than the Hittites were the Assyrians, who created the world’s first true empire – a large state created by the conquest of one’s neighbors – from 911 to 612 B.C.E.
  • With an army of 500,000 troops, armed with iron weapons and making use of the new skill of cavalry (horseback) warfare, the Assyrians took over most of the Middle East, including Mesopotamia and Egypt.
  • The Assyrians held their empire together by means of a deliberate policy of ruthlessness and cruelty.
  • Assyrian rule over the Middle East was ended by a new conqueror, the Chaldeans, or Neo-Babylonians, who controlled the region from 626 to 539 B.C.E.
  • Their most famous ruler was Nebuchadnezzar (ca. 605 – 562 B.C.E.), renowned for building the Hanging Gardens of Babylon.

The Lydians:

  • The Lydians were a Middle Eastern people (ca. 600 – 500 B.C.E.)
  • The Lydians are reputed to have invented metal coinage as a practical and portable form of currency.
  • The Lydians were said to be the originators of gold and silver coins.
  • The Lydians were a commercial people.

Great Wall of China:

“In c. 220 B.C., under Qin Shi Huang, sections of earlier fortifications were joined together to form a united defense system against invasions from the north. Construction continued up to the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), when the Great Wall became the world's largest military structure. Its historic and strategic importance is matched only by its architectural significance.”

~ unesco.org