The Need for Planning

THE NEED FOR PLANNING

Perhaps the first question that has to be answered in a book about planning is simply why do we need planning?" The need for planning-comes-down to towards, interconnectedness and complexity .lf there were few of us and the technologies

by which we lived were relatively simple th'bre would be little need for planning

as descibed in this book. we could each go-our own way.and would gain uttle

from co[rmon planning efforts. However, the fact is that we are numerous

enough and our technologiis complicated-mough thai this is not the case.

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Consider a simpie illustrition of interionnectedness, the 'se of a few

acres of urban land. The amount and character of development on that land will

determine the amount of traffic it generates. Developing it with single'family

houses will produce a different traffic flow than developing it with apartments,

which will fenerate a different traffic flow than developing it *tg a neighborhoodshopp-

ingcenter.Thusalanddevelopmmtdecisionisatrafficdecisionas

well. That, potmtially, affects everyone in the area. How much of the site is paved,

and even what material is used ior paving, affects how fast rainwater runs off

fromthePloPeriy.Runoffmayaffectfloodingandstreamflowconditionsmiles

down_stream from the prop"riy. The types and quantities of commercial or residential

activify on the properry may arre.t air quality, noise levels, water quality,

and the visual and social qualities of the area'

Decisions about the residential uses of land will affect housing prices,

rents, and vacancies-in short, who can live in the communj.fy. Those decisions, in

furn, ra"ili have effects on the economy of ihe communi.ty and the demands that

are placed on the community for educational, social, and other services.

The land-use decisions n-Lade by a communily shape rts ven' characteri,.'

i''ai it is iike to in'all: ihroueh., rrrhat if is 1il:e to Crive through, v'h:' iri'es in it,

u'hat kincis of jobs anc Lrusiriesses exist ir it, ho-w v'ell the naruiai cn\'-J'l:.rrlenl

survives, and it'hether the community is an aftracti\/e one or an ugh'one, In some

cases such decisions may directly affeci human life and health, for example,

whether traffic patterns are safe or hazardous.

Laad-use decisions affect the fiscal health of the communify. Every property

that is developed burdens the community with obligations such as education,

police and fire protection, recreational services, and social services. Conversely,

every development contributes, directly or indirectly, to mr:nicipal revenues

through property taxes, sales taxes, or charges and fees, Thus the Pattern of land

development will affect how heavily the community must tax its residents and the

level of public serrdces the community can provide.

The land in question may be privately owned, in which case public control

is exercised through a regulatory process. It may be owned publid], in which

case dixect public investment will determine its use. But in either case there is a

distinct public interest in what happens on the land. To generalize, it is the fact of

interconnectedness, whether we are discussing land use or other questions, which

helps to iustify public planning efforts.

Complexity is the condition that justifies planning as a seParate profession

and as a separate activity of government. If all of the sorts of relationships suggested

were simple, they could be dealt with simply and informally. If the community

were tiny, perhaps direct negotiations between private parties would suffice.

If the community were somewhat larger, perhaps they could be easily dealt

with along with the general flow of municipal business. But the complexity of a

modern communily renders such simple and direct approaches inadequate.

The complexity of the communify also means that many things that in a

simpler place could be.done privately must be done publicly. In an agricultural

area with a population of perhaps a few dozen people per square mile, water supply

and waste disposal are handled on site by the individual household. No common

decision making or investment is necessary. In a large metroPolitan area,

tlese functions are likely to involve systems that span many communities and

may involve billions of dollars of capital investment. Comparable comments

could be made about transportation, education, public safety, recreation, and the

like.

Thus in thousands of communities in ihe United States planning is a formalized

and distinct process of govemment. In relatively small commr:nities the

planning function may be lodged in an unpaid part-time planning board with the

technical work done by a planning consultant. Ln larger communities the planning

function is generally located within a planning departmeni. Depending on

communily size, ihat department may have a staff ranging from one to several

hundred individuals. In a very small deparlment the planner(s) may be a jack-of all-trades handling land-use questionS one day, capital budgeting another day,

and economic development a third day. In a iarger agenry there maybe considerable

specialization of labor. One section of ihe agency may specialize in zoning issues,

;nother in master planning, a third in planning-related research, anoiher in

environmental issues, and so on.

THE SPECIFIC CONCERNS OF PLANNING

\Mrat might a community seek to achieve througir planning? In a growing community,

planners might be concerned with shaping the pattem of growth to

achieve a sensible and attractive land-use pattern. That means avoiding both oppressively

dense development or overly scattered and fragmentary development.

It m"anr

"n.ouraging

a pattern of development that gives residents ready access

to recreational, cultuxal, school, shopping and other facilities. It means having a

street pattern that is convenient to use and through which traffic flows without

excessive congestion, It means separating incompatible land uses and activities,

for example, high-intensity commercial activity from residential areas. In a modern

planned community it might mean providing a system of pathways so that

pedestrian and biryde traffic is separated from automobile traffic. -

The community's planners will also be concemed with the location of

public facilities like schools and social service centers, boti for the convenience of

ihe people served and to reinforce the development of a desirable land-use pattern

If the community anticipates or desires significant industrial or commercial

developmenN its planners will be concerned with seeing that sufficient,conveniently

located blocks of land are available and that they are served with adequate

roads, water, and sewer facilities.

In an older community that is not growing and that does not anticiPate

growth, planners may be concerned primarily with preserving or improviag that

which now exists. Thus planners may focw on measures to Preserve the quality

of ihe housing siock. ln many communities planners will also be concemed with

housing cost questions, specifically, how to provide housing for the commrniffs

Iower-income residents, In many older communities planners devote much effori

to preserving historic buildings and other landmarks. If the community is concerned

(as many are) about the health of its downtowry planners may be involved

in implementing street improvements and other changes designed to help downtown

businesses compete successfully with establishments in outlying areas.

In a community that faces a serious unemployment probiem, economic

development may be a major task of the planners. Much of their effort may be devoted

to creating conditions that encourage efsting industry to remain and expand

and new firms to locate within the community. -

In recent years much planning effort has focused on environmental issues:

how to guide and manage development to minimize environmental damage.

For example, a plarurer might be concerned with evaluating the relative environmental

merits and financial costs of landfill disposal versus incineration for a

municipali{s solid wastes and then with helping to select the best site. -

Planners employed by regional planning organizations may be concerned

with improving the regionwideroad network, with acquiringor developing land

for a regionwi-de park and open space system, or with improving regionr,r'ide . i

sel^/age aisposal and water systems. They will also be concerned with encouraging

ciordination beiween the planning efforts of the various municipalities irr the

relion to avoid duplicaiion of capiial facilities and interference effects (for exam-

111-. ^6-^--,..1-,iiv A rifi'ro i:-r ia.rliji. :ir::ation at a Point u'here it biriers a resir

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dettna.: ;.;:; rr. :: r:,:t u:titj- Bt.

This is fai fron-, a conrpiete lisfing. It is simply meant to girre some feeiing

for the range of planning issues.

WHO ARE T}IE PLANNERS?

Planners come from a variety of backgrounds. The single most common educational

background is formal tr.lnit g in planning, most often a mastels degreg.

But the fieli, and particularly targer agencies and consultants, absorb people with

many other backgrounds. Agencies that are large enough to have a seParate re'

searih operation are likely to hire people with training in economicsor statistics.

Agencies that do transportation planning are tikely to hire people with training in

ciiil engineering and, particularly, transportation engineering. Large agencies

often dJ a substlntial amount of data handling and are likety to have on staff a

few people with background in programming and datap:ocessing. Agencies that

do significant u*oulrir of environmental planning are likely to-hire people with

backgrounds in biology, chemistry, environmental science, and remote sensing'

planiing inevitably involves mapping and spatiatly organized data, so that a certain

nuriber of geographers and cartographers find their way into the profession.

Planning invoiries many issues of law, particularly in regard to land use and environmJntal

considerations. Thus many attorneys and people with joint training

in law and planning have entered the field. In fact, several universities have joint

law and planning degree Programs.

fit" ',tuptity of planners are emPloyed by government' Of these, the

larger share are emptoyea Uy local governments, that is, by cities, towns, counties,

anJ other substate jurisdictions. Smaller numbers are employed by state governments,

by intergovernment organizations Uke councils of governments (COGs),

and by j variety of authorities and special-purpose agencies. Some-planners are

employed by the federal government, particularly in depafments like Housing

uttd Uib* D"nelopment (HUD), which fund and regulate planning-related activities

of local goverirments. Most planners employed by government are civil servants,

but a iertain number are political appointees chosen outside the civil service

process. over the years many planners have found their way into municipal

administration, where the sort of "big picture" view that planning tends to develop

seems to be useful.

A substantial minority of all pianners are employed within the private

sector of the economy. Many work for plaruring consultants and in that caPa_oty

serve both government and a variety of private clients, A certain number of Plannu.

r ur" entployed directly by private organizations like land developers and corporations

vrith substantial real property holdings. Some planners work for particAn

ular groups in society which feel they need the planners' skills to makqthei.r ora'n

case in the public forum. These may be neighhorhood or commuuitl' grou-F's, environmental

organizations, auC cihzens' grouPs of one trye ot arrother.

SATISFACTIONS AIJD DISCONTENTS

F.a;',:r:'-.: is bc:i'. e.:rtic-pai(r; ' a,.': :aa::.= : -1,i t::;r-'i :-r'',':i.--, E v.':' :'e :tv;'i=--' :i

anticipaii;rg and developi:rg resPolues i:' problerrLs tliar frave noi \-*'. 'nres:r,reo

themselves. At other times planning will be devoted to responding to problenrs

that are here and demand solutions. Ln either case Planning is about h'ying to

serve that eiusive and conlroversial bui very important item known as "the pub-.

lic interest.,' It can be a profoundly satisfying field when one feels that one has

succeeded in making a contribution to the public good. Because much of planning

is concerned with the physical environment, the planner can be often have the satisfaction

of seeing the results of his or her efforts on the ground.

However, the field can also be very frusfrafing,, for planners are basically

advisors with little or no power. Sometimes they are heeded and sometimes they

are not. And sometimes ihe planner's brainchild gets more than a little altered

during that long trip from drawing board to reality. In generaf it is not a good

field for someone with a short time horizon or very low frustration tolerance. It is

also not a good field for someone wl.ro cannot tolerate ambiguify, lor many issues

that appear black or white at a distance have the dismaying quality of becoming

grey as one gets close to them.