ESSAY: How far is it accurate to say that Black Power achieved nothing for the American people?
The influence of the Black Power Movement on King
King became increasingly concerned with emphasising that black people had
alot to be proud of. King also now stressed the importance of social and economic issues (as well as segregation issues). Black Power helped change these attitudes and influenced King in re-thinking his strategy in the Northern States.
Therefore in response to Chicago King planned the Poor People’s Campaign in 1968. King aimed to create a coalition big enough to tackle the social and economic problems identified during the Chicago campaign. This would include ALL poor people and marked the radicalisation of his approach. King no longer felt that he could work within the current system but had to make significant demands to end the ghettos. However King’s reputation had already became damaged and it showed that he was not really the spokesperson for every black citizen. The Poor People’s Campaign also did not receive Federal Support because of Johnson’s refusal to support King in the light of his opposition to Vietnam
Political and Economic achievements of the Black Power Movement
It could be argued that the impact of the Black Power Movements influenced the creation of the 1968 legislation passed under Johnson which centred on outlawing discrimination in the sale or rental of housing which was a different focus from the previous legislation. Stokley Carmichael’s calls for ‘Black Power’ as leader of SNCC raised awareness of the deep-rooted problems of ghettoisation and the inability of blacks to move out of the ghettos because of discrimination in housing sales and rent.
Although the 1968 legislation was in fact a weak piece of Civil Rights legislation which did not go far enough to improve the economic and social conditions of Black Americans. It was not down to the impact of Black Power as this was provoking white opposition. It was the last significant piece of legislation to be passed in the late 1960’s after the impact of the ghetto riots between 1964 and 1968 which prompted city and federal investigations into the causes of the violence – most notably the Kerner Commission. These reports highlighted the social and economic deprivation thus compelling Johnson to take action in further legislation. It was also passed in the atmosphere of grief after the assassination of MLK.
Many argue that the 1968 Civil Rights Act could have done much more; Johnson was limited in how much he could achieve because of the highly negative impact of the riots (1964-68 in particular 1965 Watts Riots in LA) and subsequent militant action of the Black Panthers which provoked mass white opposition to further Civil Rights Legislation ( a 1966 Poll showed 90% opposed new legislation).
Practical help was offered to people living in ghettos. (see Black Panther Survival campaigns).
NOI membership was as high as 250,000 by 1969
Black people began to control their own communities. SNCC’s Free D.C. Movement (headed by Marion Barry) aimed to bring ‘home rule’ to the community of Washington DC. By the end of 1966 they won the right to elect their own school boards and $3 million of government funding was invested to improve policing.
In New York an SNCC campaign saw black people take control of the ‘Intermediate School 201’ in Harlem. In Mississippi they set up the Child Development Group of Mississippi. They raised $1.5 million from the churches to set up 85 Head Start Centres to support young children.
The initiatives of the Black Panthers helped tens of thousands of people. 49 Black Panther Clinics were set up to treat sickle cell anaemia. The Illinois People’s Free Medical Care Centre treated 2000 people in its first two months alone.
Gave black community sense of pride
Gained confidence in their race and culture that they had not previously had (King did not give them this and that’s why Malcolm X predicted violence would erupt)
The NOI message proved inspiration to many black Americans who felt disillusioned NOI membership was as high as 250,000 by 1969 and the newspaper had a weekly circulation of 600,000 by the mid 1970’s. Blacks who were not members of the NOI but
Carmichael and Newton emphasised the study of black history in order to connect them with their past and link them to powerful figures. Malcolm X stressed the need for them to understand their heritage. African history was full of examples of black radical groups overthrowing oppressors and gaining independence for themselves. Recovering the past and recognising that they were part of a global struggle with Africa at its heart was crucial to the development of self-esteem, self-respect, independence and pride for many young African Americans. Thus the Afro hairstyle became a popular symbol of black identity. This change in identity also fundamentally altered the American vocabulary. Activists rejected terms such as ‘Negroe’ as it was associated with segregation and instead referred to themselves as ‘black
There was also a profound effect on black music. The jazz composer and musician Miles Daves is an excellent example of this; he pioneered new musical styles and mixed jazz with electric instruments. His albums used non-Western instruments and incorporated ideas from African music as well as modern black styles pioneered by black artists such as James Brown and Jimi Hendrix. He also fought with his record company to have pictures of black women on his album covers
Media portrayal:
The movement caused a change in the way they were portrayed in the media. Star Trek broke new ground with a black character who was highly trained and technically competent (Lieutenant Uhura). She represented the new emphasis on African identity as she came from Africa and spoke Swahili. It also featured an inter-racial kiss between her and Captain Kirk; this caused a political storm. Catwoman in batman was an assertive black figure. Bill Crosby’s role in I Spy is another example.
There was also a radical shift in the portrayal of black characters in films. Melvin van Peebles’ ‘Sweet Sweetback’sBaadasssss Song’ dramatised the story of a Black panther and depicted the racist violence of the LA police. This was a box office hit and led to new mainstream movies reflecting the new powerful black identity. Shaft tells the story of a black detective who teams up with the Black panthers to defeat the New York mafia and save the city from a race riot
Black athletes (Smith and Carlos) kept Black Power in the news giving the Black Power salute in the 1968 Mexico City Olympic Games whilst receiving their medals for the 200 m race. The Olympic committee was outraged by the gesture and demanded that the American team suspend both athletes.
It brought division to the movement
Some campaigners developed increasingly militant policies and groups like SNCC were broken by the strain. By 1967 SNCC was divided between black separatists and social revolutionaries who advocated multiracial co-operation in the struggle against poverty and inequality. By 1970 SNCC was reduced to only three active chapters 9NYC, Atlanta and Cincinnatti). By Dec 1973 SNCC ceased to exist.
There were disagreements between the leaders of the Black Panthers: Newton argued that the party should play down the use of force and emphasise the ‘Survival Programmes’ whereas Cleaver remained committed to militancy.
Female members of the Panthers objected to the macho image of the party. (see your notes to explain this!)
However these tensions had some very positive effects; experienced campaigners could use the tensions to their advantage. Young (NUL) argued that every time Malcolm X or Carmichael criticised the NUL it became easier to work with white politicians and business leaders. White leaders became persuaded that the NUL was a respectable organisation as the criticisms implied that they were moderate. Whenever the NUL were having difficult negotiations, Young would mask Malcolm X to telephone the employers. One call from Malcolm X was usually enough to scare the employers into talking to the NUL.
Problems with violence
Violence undermined King’s policy of maintaining the moral high ground. Thus the movement lost white sympathy that King worked so hard to gain (e.g. government)
For example Johnson was dismayed by the rioting after the Voting Rights Act and King’s weakness was evident during the Watts riots when the crowds ignored his plea to end the violence
The militant stance of the Black Panthers provoked fear and alienation amongst many whites and reduced support for further government legislation. Hence the limitations of the 1968 Civil Rights Act.
The FBI campaign against the Black Panthers was hugely damaging
Lack of aims
Never quite clear what the aims of black power were
Separate state? / Return to Africa? / Revolution + overthrow of white rule?
Some of the aims were unrealistic
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