The Four Traditions of Geography

The Four Traditions of Geography

WilliamD. Pattison

LateSummer,1990

ToReadersoftheJournalofGeography:

Iamhonoredtobeintroducing,forare-turntothepagesoftheJournalafter morethan25years,“TheFourTraditionsofGe-ography,”anarticlewhichcirculatedwidely,inthiscountryandothers,longaf-teritsinitialappearance—inreprint,inxe-rographiccopy,andintranslation.Asecondroundoflifeatalevelofgeneralin-terestevenapproachingthatofthefirstmaybetoomuchtoexpect,butIwantyoutoknowinanyeventthatIpresentedthepaperinthebeginningasmygifttothegeographiccommunity,notasapersonalproperty,andthatIre-offeritnowinthesamespirit.

Inmyjudgment,thearticlecontinuestodeserveseriousattention—perhapsespe-ciallyso,letmeadd,amongpersonsawareofthespecificproblemitwasintendedtoresolve.ThebackgroundforthepaperwasmyexperienceasfirstdirectoroftheHighSchoolGeographyProject(1961–63)—notallofthatexperiencebutonlythepartthatfoundmelistening,duringnumerousconferencesessionsandassociatedinter-views,toacademicgeographersastheyre-spondedtotheproject’sinvitationtolocate“basicideas”representativeofthemall.IcameawaywiththeconclusionthatIhadbeenwitnessingnotasearchforconsensusbutratherablindstruggleforsupremacyamonghonestpersonsofcontraryintellec-tualcommitment.Intheirdialogue,twoormoredifferenttermshadbeenused,oftenunknowingly,withasingle reference, andnolessdisturbingly,asingletermhadbeenused,againoftenunknowingly,withtwoormoredifferentreferences.Thearticlewasmyattempttostabilizethediscourse.Iwasproposinga basicnomenclature (withexplicitlyassociatedideas)thatwould,I

trusted,permit the developmentofmutualcomprehensionandconfrontallpartiesconcernedwiththepluralisminherentingeographicthought.

Thisintentionalonecouldnothavejus-tifiedmyturningtotheNCGEasaforum,ofcourse.ThefactisthatfromtheonsetofmydiscomfitingrealizationIhadlookedforwardtolargerconsequencesofakindconsistentwithNCGEgoals.Asfinallyformulated,mywishwasthatthearticlewouldserve“togreatlyexpeditethetaskofmaintaininganalliancebetweenprofes-sionalgeographyandpedagogicalgeogra-phyandatthesametimetopromotecommunicationwithlaymen”(seemyfourthparagraph).ImusttellyouthatIhavedoubts,in1990,abouttheacceptabil-ityofmywordchoice,insaying“profes-sional,”“pedagogical,”and“layman”inthiscontext,butthemessageotherwiseisasexpressiveofmyhopenowasitwasthen.

IcanreporttoyouthattwicesinceitsappearanceintheJournal,myinterpreta-tionhasreceivedmoreorlessofficialac-ceptance—bothtimes,asithappens,attheexpenseoftheearthsciencetradition.ThefirstoccasionwasEdwardTaaffe’sdeliv-eryofhispresidentialaddressatthe1973meetingoftheAssociationofAmericanGeographers(seeAnnalsAAG,March1974,pp.1–16).Taaffe’sworking-throughofaspectsofaninterrelationamongthespatial,areastudies,andman-landtradi-tionsisbyfarthemostthoughtfulandthor-oughofanyofwhichIamaware.Ratherthanfaulthimforomissionofthefourthtradition,Icomplimenthimonthegracewith whichhe setitasideinconformitytoameta-epistemologyoftheAmericanuni-versitywhichdecreestheintegrityofthesocialsciencesasaconsortiumintheirownright.Hewassacrificingsuchholistic

claimsasgeographymightbeabletomus-terforafreedomtoarguethecaseforge-ographyasasocialscience.

Thesecondoccasionwasthepublica-tionin1984ofGuidelinesforGeographicEducation:ElementaryandSecondarySchools,authoredbyacommitteejointlyrepresentingtheAAGandtheNCGE.Thankstoarecentlypublishedletter(seeJournalofGeography,March-April1990,pp.85–86),weknowthat,offivethemescommendedtoteachersinthissource,

Thecommitteeliftedthehumanenviron-mentalinteractionthemedirectlyfromPattison.Thethemesofplaceandlocationare based on Pattison’sspatialorgeomet-ricgeography,andthethemeofregioncomesfromPattison’sareastudiesorre-gionalgeography.

Havingthusdrawnonmyspatial,areastudies,andman-landtraditionsforfourofthefivethemes,thecommitteecould havefound the remaining theme, movement,theretoo—inthespatialtradition(seemysixthparagraph).Howeverthatmaybe,theydidnotavailthemselvesoftheearthscience tradition, their reasons beingreadilysurmised.Peculiartotheelemen-taryandsecondaryschoolsisacurriculumcategoryframedasmuchbytheoryofciti-zenshipasbytheoryofknowledge:theso-cialstudies.Withadmiration,Iseealreadyinthecommitteemembers’adoptionofthethemeideaastrategyforassimilationoftheirprogram to the establishedrepertoireofsocialstudies practice.Iseeintheirex-clusionoftheearthsciencetraditionanin-telligentrespectforsocialstudies’purpose.

Here’s tothefutureofeducationinge-ography:mayitprosperasneverbefore.

W.D.P.,1990

ReprintedfromtheJournalofGeography,1964,pp.211–216.

In1905,oneyearafterprofessionalgeog-raphyinthiscountryachievedfullsocialidentity throughthefounding oftheAsso-ciationofAmericanGeographers,WilliamMorrisDavisrespondedtoafamiliarsus-picionthatgeographyissimplyanundisci-plined“omnium-gatherum”bydescribinganapproachthatashesawitimpartsa“geographicalquality”tosomeknowledgeandaccountsfortheabsenceofthequality

elsewhere.1 Davisspokeaspresidentof

theAAG.Hesetanexamplethatwasfol-lowedbymorethanonepresidentofthatorganization.AnenduringofficialconcernledtheAAGtopublish,in1939andin1959,monographsexclusivelydevotedtoacriticalreviewofdefinitionsandtheir

implications.2

Everyoneofthewell-knowndefini-tionsofgeographyadvancedsincethefoundingoftheAAGhashaditsmeasureofsuccess.Tendingtodisplaceonean-otherbyturns,eachdefinitionhassaid

somethingtrueofgeography.3 Butfrom

thevantagepointof1964,onecanseethateachonehasalsofailed.Allofthemadoptedinonewayoranotheramonisticview,asinglenessofpreference,certaintoomitifnottoalienatenumerousprofes-sionalswhowereingood consciencecon-tinuingtoparticipatecreativelyinthebroadgeographicenterprise.

ThethesisofthepresentpaperisthattheworkofAmericangeographers,althoughnotconformingtotherestrictionsimpliedbyanyoneofthesedefinitions,hasexhib-itedabroadconsistency,andthatthises-sentialunityhasbeenattributabletoasmallnumberofdistinctbutaffiliatedtraditions,operantasbindersinthemindsofmembersoftheprofession.ThesetraditionsareallofgreatageandhavepassedintoAmericangeographyaspartsofagenerallegacyofWesternthought.Theyaresharedtodaybygeographersofothernations.

Therearefourtraditionswhoseidentifi-cationprovidesanalternativetothecom-petingmonisticdefinitionsthathavebeenthegeographer’slot.Theresultingplu-ralisticbasisforjudgmentpromises,byfullaccommodationofwhatgeographersdoandbyplain-spokenrepresentationthereof,togreatlyexpeditethetaskofmaintaininganalliancebetweenprofes-sionalgeographyandpedagogicalgeogra-phyandatthesametimetopromotecommunicationwithlaymen.Thefollow-ingdiscussiontreatsthetraditionsinthisorder:(1)aspatialtradition,(2)anarea

studiestradition,(3)aman-landtraditionand(4)anearthsciencetradition.

SpatialTradition

EntrenchedinWesternthoughtisabeliefintheimportanceofspatialanalysis,oftheactofseparatingfromthehappeningsofexperiencesuch aspectsas distance, form,directionandposition.Itwasnotuntilthe17thcenturythatphilosophersconcen-trated attentionontheseaspects by askingwhetherornottheywerepropertiesofthings-in-themselves.Later,whenthe18thcenturywritingsofImmanuelKanthadbe-comegenerallycirculated,thenotionofspaceasacategoryincludingalloftheseaspectscameintowidespreaduse.How-ever,itisevidentthatparticularspatialquestionswerethesubjectofhighlyorga-nizedansweringattemptslongbeforethetimeofanyofthesecogitations.Tocon-firmthispoint,oneneedonlyberemindedofthecompilationofelaboraterecordsconcerningthelocationofthingsinancientGreece.Thesewererecordsofsailing dis-tances,ofcoastlinesandoflandmarksthatgrewuntiltheyformedtherawmaterialforthegreatGeographiaofClaudiusPtolemyinthe2ndcenturyA.D.

Areviewof Americanprofessionalge-ographyfromthetimeofitsformalorgani-zationshowsthatthespatialtraditionofthoughthadmadeadeeppenetrationfromtheverybeginning.ForDavis,forHenryGannettandformostifnotallofthe44othermenoftheoriginalAAG,thedeter-minationanddisplayofspatialaspectsofrealitythroughmappingwereofun-doubtedimportance,whethercontempo-rarydefinitions ofgeographyhappenedtoacknowledgethisfactornot.Onecangofurtherand,byprobingbeneaththeartofmapping,recognizeinthebehaviorofge-ographersofthattimean activeinterestinthetrueessentialsofthespatialtradition—geometryandmovement.Onecantraceabasicfavoringofmovementasasubjectofstudyfromtheturn-of-the-centuryworkofEmoryR.Johnson,writingasprofessoroftransportationattheUniversityofPenn-sylvania,throughthehighlyinfluentialtheoreticalandsubstantiveworkofEd-wardL.Ullmanduringthepast20yearsandthencetoanarticlebyayoungergeog-rapheronrailroadfreighttrafficintheU.S.andCanadaintheAnnalsoftheAAGfor

September1963.4

Onecantraceadeepattachmenttoge-ometry,orpositioning-and-layout,fromarticlesonboundariesandpopulationden-sitiesinearly20thcenturyvolumesoftheBulletinoftheAmericanGeographicalSociety,throughacontroversialpro-nouncementbyJosephSchaeferin1953thatgrantedgeographicallegitimacyonly

tostudiesofspatialpatterns5andsoon-

wardtoarecentAnnalsreportonelec-tronic scanningof croplandpatternsinPennsylvania.6

Onemightinquire,isdiscussionofthespatialtradition,afterthemannerofthere-marksjustmade,likelytobringpeoplewithin geography closer to anunderstand-ingofoneanotherandpeopleoutsidege-ographyclosertoanunderstandingofgeographers?Thereseemtobeatleasttworeasonsforbeinghopeful.First,anappre-ciationofthistraditionallowsonetoseeabondoffellowshipunitingtheelementaryschoolteacher,whoattemptsthemostru-dimentaryinstructionindirectionsandmapping,withthecontemporaryresearchgeographer,whodedicateshimselftoanexplorationofcentral-placetheory.Onecannotonlyopentheeyesofmanyteach-erstothepotentialitiesoftheirownin-struction,throughproperexpositionofthespatialtradition,butonecanalso“hangabell”onresearchquantifiersingeography,whoareoftenthoughttohavewanderedsofarintheirintellectualadventuresastohavebecomelostfromtherest.Lookingoutsidegeography,onemayanticipatebenefitsfromthereadinessofcountlesspersonstoassociatethename“geography”withmaps.Latentwithinthisreadinessisawillingnesstorecognizeasgeography,too,whatmapsareabout—andthatisthegeometryofandthemovementofwhatismapped.

AreaStudiesTradition

Theareastudiestradition,likethespatialtradition,isquitestrikinglyrepresentedinclassicalantiquitybyapractitionertowhosesurvivingworkwecanpoint.HeisStrabo,celebratedforhisGeographywhichisamassiveproductionaddressedtothestatesmenofAugustanRomeandintendedtosumupandregularizeknowledgenotofthelocationofplacesandassociatedcarto-graphicfacts,asinthesomewhatlatercaseofPtolemy,butofthenatureofplaces,theircharacterandtheirdifferentiation.Straboexhibitsinterestingattributesofthearea-

studiestraditionthatcanhardlybeoverem-phasized. Theyare apronouncedtendencytowardsubscriptionprimarilytoliterarystandards,analmostomnivorousappetiteforinformationandaself-consciouscom-panionshipwithhistory.

ItisanextremegoodfortunetohaveintheranksofmodernAmericangeographythescholarRichardHartshorne,whohasponderedthemeaningofthearea-studiestraditionwithalegalacutenessthatfewpersonswouldchallenge.InhisNatureofGeography,his1939monographalready

cited,7hescrutinizesexhaustivelytheim-

plicationsofthe“interestingattributes”identifiedinconnectionwithStrabo,eventhough hisconcernis withquiteotherandmuchlaterauthors,largelyGerman.Themajorliteraryproblemofunitiesorwholesheconsidersfromeveryangle.TheGar-gantuanappetiteformiscellaneousinfor-mationheacceptsandrationalizes.Thecompanionshipbetweenareastudiesandhistoryheclarifiesbyappraisingtheso-calledidiographiccontentofbothandbyaffirmingthetieofbothtowhatheandSauerhavecalled“naivelygivenreality.”

Thearea-studiestradition(otherwiseknownasthechorographictradition)tendedtobeexcludedfromearlyAmeri-canprofessionalgeography.Todayitisbe-setby certainchampionsofthespatialtraditionwhowouldhaveonebelievethatsomehowthearea-studiesway of organiz-ingknowledgeisonlyasubdepartment ofspatialism.Still,area-studiesasamethodofpresentationlivesandprospersinitsownright. Onecanturntoday forreassur-anceonthisscoretopracticallyanyissueoftheGeographicalReview,justasearlierreaderscouldturnattheopeningofthecenturytothatmagazine’sforerunner.

What is gainedbysinglingoutthis tra-dition?Ithelpstowardrestoringthefaithofmanyteacherswho,beingaccustomedtoadministeringlearninginthearea-stud-iesstyle,havebeguntowonderifbydoingsotheyreallywerekeepingintouchwithprofessionalgeography.(Theirdoubtsareowedalltoomuchtotheobscuringeffectoftechnicalwordsattributabletotheveryprofessionalswhohavebeenintent,ironi-cally,uponprotectingthattradition.)Amongpersonsoutsidetheclassroomthegeographerstandstogaingreatlyinintelli-gibility.Thetitle“area-studies”itselfcar-riesanunderstoodmessageintheUnitedStatestodaywhereverthereiscontactwiththeusagesoftheacademiccommunity.Thepurposeofcharacterizingaplace,beitneighborhoodornation-state,isreadilygrasped.Furthermore,recognitionofthe

rightofageographertobeunspecializedmaybeexpectedtobeforthcomingfrompeoplegenerally,ifapplicationforsuchrecognitionismadeonthemeritsofthistradition,explicitly.

Man-LandTradition

Thatgeographersaremuchgiventoex-ploringman-landquestionsisespeciallyevidenttoanyonewhoexaminesgeo-graphicoutput,notonlyinthiscountrybutalsoabroad.O.H.K.Spate,takinganin-ternationalview,hasfeltjustifiedbyhisobservationsinnominatingasthemostsignificantancientprecursoroftoday’sge-ographyneitherPtolemynorStrabonorwriterstypifiedintheiroutlookbythege-ographiesofeitherofthesetwomen,butratherHippocrates,Greekphysicianofthe5thcenturyB.C.wholefttoposterityanextended essay, On Airs, Waters and

Places.8Inthisworkmadeupofreflec-tionsonhumanhealthandconditionsof

externalnature,thequestionsaskedaresuchastoconfinethoughtalmostalto-gethertopresumedinfluencepassingfromthelattertotheformer,questionslargelyabouttheeffectsofwinds,drinkingwaterandseasonalchangesuponman.Under-standablethoughthisuni-directionalcon-cernmayhavebeenforHippocratesasmedicalcommentator,anddefensibleasmaybetheattractionthatthissameap-proachheldforstudentsoftheconditionofmanformany,manycenturiesthereafter,onecanonlyregretthatthisnarrowedver-sionoftheman-landtradition,combiningalltooeasilywithsocialDarwinismofthelate19thcentury,practicallyoverpowered

Americanprofessionalgeographyinthefirstgenerationofitshistory.9Thepre-misesofthisversiongovernedscoresof

studiesbyAmericangeographersininter-pretingtheriseandfallofnations,thestrategyofbattlesandtheconstructionofpublicimprovements.Eventuallythisspe-cialbias,knownasenvironmentalism,cametobeconfusedwiththewhole oftheman-landtraditioninthemindsofmanypeople.Onecanseenow,lookingbacktotheyearsaftertheascendancyofenviron-mentalism,thatalthoughthespatialtradi-tionwasassertingitselfwithvaryingdegreesofforwardness,andthatalthoughthe area-studiestraditionwas alsomakingitselffelt,perhapsthemostinterestingchaptersinthestoryofAmericanprofes-sionalgeographywerebeingwrittenbyac-ademicianswhowerereactingagainstenvironmentalismwhiledeliberatelyre-mainingwithinthebroadman-landtradi-

tion.Theriseofculturehistoriansduringthelast30yearshasmeantthedroppingofacurtainofculturebetweenlandandman,throughwhichitisassertedallinfluencemustpass.Furthermoreworkofbothcul-turehistoriansandothergeographershasexhibitedareversalofthedirectionoftheeffectsinHippocrates,manappearingasanindependentagent,andthelandasasuf-fererfromaction.ThistrendaspresentedinpublishedresearchhasreachedahighpointinthecollectionofpaperstitledMan’sRoleinChangingtheFaceoftheEarth.Finally,booksandarticlescanbecalledtomindthathaveaddressedthem-selvestothemostdifficulttaskofall,abalancedtracingoutofinteractionbe-tweenmanandenvironment.Somechaptersinthebookmentionedaboveun-dertakejustthis.Infacttheseparatenessofthisapproachisdiscernedonlywithdiffi-cultyinmany places; however,itssignifi-canceasageneralresearchdesignthatrisesaboveenvironmentalism,whilere-fusingtoabandontheman-landtradition,cannotbemistaken.

TheNCGEseemstohaveassociatedit-selfwiththeman-landtradition,fromthetimeoffoundingtothepresentday,morethanwithanyothertradition,althoughallfourofthetraditionsareamplyrepresentedinitsofficialmagazine,TheJournalofGe-ographyandintheproceedingsofitsan-nualmeetings.ThisapparentpreferenceonthepartoftheNCGEmembersfordefininggeographyintermsof theman-landtradi-tionisstrongevidenceoftheappealthatman-landideas,separatelystated,haveforpersonswhosemain job isteaching.Itshouldbenoted,too,thatthisinclinationreflectsaprovenacceptancebythegeneralpublic of learningthatcenters on resourceuseandconservation.

EarthScienceTradition

Theearthsciencetradition,embracingstudyoftheearth,thewatersoftheearth,theatmospheresurroundingtheearthandtheassociationbetweenearthandsun,con-frontsonewithaparadox.Ontheonehandoneisassuredbyprofessionalgeographersthat theirparticipation inthistraditionhasdeclinedprecipitouslyinthecourseofthepastfewdecades,whileontheotheroneknowsthatcollegedepartmentsofgeogra-phyacrossthenationrelysubstantially,forjustification oftheirroleingeneraleduca-tion, uponcurricularcontentspringingdi-rectlyfromthistradition.Fromallthereasonsthatcombinetoaccountforthisstateofaffairs,onemay,byselectingonly

two,gofartowardachievinganunder-standingofthistradition.First,thereisthefactthatAmericancollegegeography,growingoutofdepartmentsofgeologyinmanycrucialinstances,wasatonetimegreatly overweightedinfavorofearthsci-ence,thus renderingthefield unusuallyli-abletoasenseoflossasbetterbalancecameintobeing.(Thisone-timedispropor-tionfoundreciprocatesupportformanyyearsinthenarrowed,environmentalisticinterpretationoftheman-landtradition.)Second,herealoneinearthsciencedoesoneencountersubjectmatterinthenormalsenseofthetermasonereviewsgeo-graphictraditions.Thespatialtraditionab-stractscertainaspectsofreality;areastudiesisdistinguishedbyapointofview;theman-landtraditiondwellsuponrela-tionships;butearthscienceisidentifiablethroughconcrete objects.Historians,soci-ologistsandotheracademicianstendnotonlytoacceptbutalsotoaskforhelpfromthispartofgeography.Theyreadilyappre-ciateearthscienceassomethingphysicallyassociated withtheirsubjectsofstudy,yetgenerallybeyondtheircompetencetotreat.Fromthisappreciationcomesstrengthforgeography-as-earth-scienceinthecurriculum.

Onlybygrantingfullstaturetotheearthsciencetraditioncanonemakesenseoutoftheoft-repeatedaddage,“Geographyisthemotherofsciences.”ThisisthetraditionthatemergedinancientGreece,mostclearlyinthe workofAristotle,asawide-rangingstudyofnaturalprocessesinandnearthesurfaceoftheearth.Thisisthetra-ditionthatwasrejuvenatedbyVareniusinthe17thcenturyas“GeographiaGenera-lis.”Thisisthetraditionthathasbeensub-jectedtosubdivisionasthedevelopmentofsciencehasapproachedthepresentday,yieldingmineralogy,paleontology,glaci-ology,meterologyandotherspecializedfieldsoflearning.

ReaderswhoareacquaintedwithAmericanjuniorhighschoolsmaywanttomakeachallengeatthispoint,beingawarethatacurrentrevivalofearthsciencesisbeingsponsoredinthoseschoolsbythefieldofgeology.Belatedly,geographyhas

joinedinsupportofthisrevival.10Itmaybesaidthatinthisconnectionandinoth-ers,Americanprofessionalgeographymayhavefalteredinitsadherencetotheearthsciencetraditionbutnotgivenitup.

Indescribinggeography,therewouldappeartobesomeadvantagesattachedtoisolatingthisfinaltradition.Separationim-provesthegeographer’schancesofsuc-cessfullyexplainingtoeducatorswhygeographyhasextremedifficultyinac-commodatingitselftosocialstudiespro-grams.Again,separateattentionallowsonetomakeunderstandingcontactwithmembersoftheAmericanpublicforwhomsurroundingnatureisknownasthegeo-graphicenvironment.Andfinally,specificreferencetothegeographer’searthsciencetraditionbringsintotheopenthebasisofwhatis,almostwithoutadoubt,morallythemostsignificantconceptintheentiregeographicheritage,thatoftheearthasaunity,thesinglecommonhabitatofman.

An Overview

Thefourtraditionsthoughdistinctinlogicarejoinedinaction.Onecansayofgeographythatitpursuesconcurrentlyallfourofthem.Takingthetraditionsinvaryingcombinations,thegeographercanexplaintheconventionaldivisionsofthefield.Humanorculturalgeographyturnsouttoconsistofthefirstthreetraditionsappliedtohumansocieties;physicalge-ography,itbecomesevident,isthefourthtraditionprosecutedunderconstraintsfromthefirstandsecondtraditions.Go-ingfurther,onecanuncoverthemeaningsof“systematicgeography,”“regionalge-ography,”“urbangeography,”“industrialgeography,”etc.

Itistobehopedthatthroughawidenedwillingness toconceiveofanddiscussthefieldintermsofthesetraditions,geogra-phywillbebetterabletosecuretheinnerunityandouterintelligibilitytowhichref-erencewasmadeattheopeningofthispa-per,andthattherebytheeffectivenessofgeography’scontribution toAmericaned-ucationandtothegeneralAmericanwel-farewillbeappreciablyincreased.

Notes

1.William MorrisDavis,“An InductiveStudyoftheContentofGeography,”Bul-letin ofthe AmericanGeographical Soci-ety,Vol.38,No.1(1906),71.

2.Richard Hartshorne, The Nature ofGeography,Association ofAmericanGeographers (1939), and idem.,Perspec-tive on the Nature ofGeography,Associ-ation ofAmerican Geographers(1959).

3.The essentials ofseveralofthese defi-nitionsappearinBarryN.Floyd,“PuttingGeography inIts Place,”The JournalofGeography,Vol.62,No.3 (March,1963),117–120.

4.William H.Wallace,“FreightTrafficFunctionsofAnglo-American Rail-roads,” Annals ofthe Association ofAmerican Geographers,Vol.53,No.3(September, 1963),312–331.

5.Fred K.Schaefer,“Exceptionalism inGeography: A MethodologicalExamina-tion,” Annalsofthe Association of Amer-ican Geographers,Vol.43,No.3(September, 1953),226–249.

6.James P.Latham, “Methodology foran InstrumentalGeographic Analysis,”Annals ofthe Association ofAmericanGeographers,Vol.53,No.2(June,1963),194–209.

7.Hartshorne’s1959 monograph,Per-spectiveontheNatureofGeography,wasalso citedearlier.In thislaterwork,herespondstodissentsfrom geographerswhosepreferredprimarycommitmentliesoutside the area studies tradition.

8.O.H.K.Spate,“QuantityandQualityinGeography,”AnnalsoftheAssociationofAmericanGeographers,Vol.50,No.4(December,1960),379.

9.Evidence ofthisdominance may befound in Davis’s 1905 declaration:“Anystatementisofgeographicalqualityif itcontains… some relation between an ele-mentofinorganic controlandoneoforganic response” (Davis,loc.cit.).

10.GeographyisrepresentedonboththeSteeringCommitteeand Advisory Boardofthe Earth Science Curriculum Project,potentially the mostinfluentialorganiza-tion actingon behalf ofearth science inthe schools.