The Eighteenth Century: An Age of Enlightenment

The Enlightenment

New ideas about the human potential for ______.

Grew in part out of the ______.

Became one of the foundations of the American and French ______.

Appealed primarily to ______and _____ classes, particularly in urban areas.

Key Ideas of the Enlightenment

______should be used to understand the world.

Laws of ______and the physical world could be discerned through the scientific method

Humanity could ______.

Immune Kant

The German philosopher Immanuel ____ proclaimed the motto of the Enlightenment to be: “Dare to Know!”

The Popularization of Science

Bernard de Fontenelle

The scientist-philosopher Bernard de Fontenelle provides a link between the scientists of the 17th century and the philosophes of the Eighteenth century.

The works of Fontenelle announced the Enlightenment by encouraging ______conversations about scientific matters.

He ______the growing ______toward the claims of religion and portrayed churches as clear enemies of scientific progress.

Fontenelle was best known for his ______, which popularized the new ideas of a mechanistic universe and clearly showed a woman’s interest in scientific discourse.

The Rise of Skepticism

Questioning the Church’s dogma concerning the physical world led to skepticism regarding all aspects of Church authority.

Pierre Bayle

Pierre Bayle exemplified the new skepticism about religious explanations of anything.

Bayle's Historical and Critical Dictionary is a work demonstrating the author's conviction that new rational principles of textual criticism should be applied to all types of writing including ______.

The Impact of Travel Literature

A key new type of enlightened writing fueling skepticism about the "truths" of Christianity and European society were ______and comparative studies of old and new world ______.

What had been seen as practices grounded in reason were seen to be matters of ______and ______.

Cultural Relativism was accompanied by religious skepticism.

The Legacy of Newton and Locke

Isaac Newton and John Locke provided inspiration for the Enlightenment by arguing that through rational reasoning and the acquisition of knowledge natural laws governing human society could be discovered.

John Locke (1632-1704)

English philosopher, who founded the school of ______.

 Locke gave Bacon’s empiricism systematic expression in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690).

Locke's empiricism emphasizes the importance of the ______of the ______in pursuit of knowledge rather than intuitive speculation or deduction.

 He regarded the mind of a person at birth as a ______, a blank slate upon which experience imprinted knowledge, and did not believe in intuition or theories of innate conceptions.

 Locke also held that all persons are born ____, independent, and _____.

Locke’s Political Theories

 he argued that government should be based on the consent of the governed.

there was a ______between governments and the governed.

The Philosophes

Philosophers who questioned the human condition.

They saw themselves as the heir to the philosophers of antiquity and the Renaissance ______.

 They advocated reform through the acquisition of knowledge by ______.

They believed in the ______of human institutions through reason

The French philosophes included people mainly from the ______and the ______class.

The recognized capital of the Enlightenment was _____, but the movement was international.

Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)

Charles Louis de Secondat was born in Bordeaux, France, in 1689 to a wealthy family.

He was a member of the Bordeaux and FrenchAcademies of Science and studied the laws and customs and governments of the countries of Europe.

He gained fame in 1721 with his ______, which criticized the lifestyle and liberties of the wealthy French as well as the church.

Montesquieu's book On the ______, published in 1748, was his most famous work. It outlined his ideas on how government would best work.

Montesquieu believed that a government that was ______by the people was the best form of government, but that ______and ______determine the form.

Montesquieu argued that the best government would be one in which power was ______among ______of officials.

He thought ______- which divided power between the king (who enforced laws), Parliament (which made laws), and the judges of the English courts (who interpreted laws) - was a good model of this.

 Montesquieu called the idea of dividing government power into three branches the "______."

He thought it most important to create separate branches of government with equal but different powers.

"When the [law making] and [law enforcement] powers are united in the same person... there can be no liberty."

His ideas about separation of powers became the basis for the United States______.

Voltaire (1694-1778)

Voltaire was born François Marie Arouet in Paris, November 21, 1694, the son of a notary.

He was educated by the Jesuits at the College Louis-le-Grand.

Voltaire chose literature as a career.

He began moving in aristocratic circles and soon became known in Paris salons as a brilliant and ______wit.

A number of his writings resulted in his imprisonment in the Bastille.

While in prison he began writing plays, which were widely acclaimed.

A quarrel with a member of an illustrious French family, the chevalier de Rohan, resulted in Voltaire's promise to quit France and proceed to England.

Accordingly he spent about two years in London

In Voltaire's ______he expressed deep admiration for the English love of freedom, tolerance, and commercial excellence.

He spent time at the court of Louis XV and became a member of the FrenchAcademy.

After a brief sojourn at the Prussian court he settled at Ferney near the Swiss border and devoted the rest of his life to writing.

His morality was founded on a belief in ______and respect for all individuals, and he maintained that literature should be useful and concerned with the problems of the day.

During his later life, Voltaire became increasingly critical of ______

“écrasons l'infâme”

The flavor of Voltaire's activities could be summarized in the phrase he often used: écrasons l'infâme ("let us crush the infamous one").

he referred to any form of religion that persecutes non-adherents or that constitutes fanaticism.

For Christianity he would substitute _____, a purely rational religion.

Deism was based on the Newtonian world-machine with God as its benevolent mechanic, designing the universe in accord with rational laws.

His most famous work is perhaps ______, in which Voltaire analyzes the problem of evil in the world, depicts the woes heaped upon the world in the name of religion.

Diderot, Denis (1713-1784),

French Encyclopedist and philosopher, who also wrote novels, essays, plays, and art and literary criticism.

Diderot was born in Langres on October 5, 1713, and educated by Jesuits.

His first serious work was Pensées philosophiques (1746), which stated his deist philosophy.

He was the most versatile of all the philosophes, as exemplified by the various types of provocative literature he wrote.

In 1747 he was invited to edit a French translation of the English Cyclopaedia by Ephraim Chambers.

Encyclopedia

Diderot converted the project into a vast, new, and controversial 28-volume ______compiling articles by many influential philosophes.

The ______, rationalist Diderot used the Encyclopedia as a powerful propaganda weapon against ecclesiastical authority and the superstition, conservatism, and semifeudal social forms of the time.

He renounced chastity and the narrow Christian definitions of acceptable sexual relations and expressions of love.

Consequently, Diderot and his associates became the objects of clerical and royal antagonism.

The New “Science of Man

The belief in natural laws underlying all areas of human life led to the emergence of the ______.

David Hume

David Hume (1711-1776), a Scottish historian and philosopher, who influenced the development of skepticism and empiricism, two schools of philosophy.

Born in Edinburgh on May 7, 1711, Hume was educated at home and at the University of Edinburgh, at which he matriculated at the age of 12.

His most important philosophical work, ______, published in 1739, embodies the essence of his thinking.

His work encouraged the belief in the possibility of a ______of ___.

In a revolutionary step in philosophy, Hume rejected the basic idea of ______, maintaining that “reason can never show us the connection of one object with another.”

Hume denied the existence of the ______, maintaining that because people do not have a constant perception of themselves as distinct entities, they “are nothing but a bundle or collection of different perceptions.”

As a historian Hume broke away from the traditional chronological account and attempted to describe the ______and ______forces that played a part in history.

His History of England was for many years regarded as a classic.

Hume's contributions to economic theory included his belief that wealth depends not on _____ but on commodities and his recognition of the effect of social conditions on economics.

These ideas influenced the Scottish philosopher and economist Adam Smith and later economists.

The Physiocrats

A school of French thinkers who sought to create the first complete system of ______.

They were also referred to simply as “the economists” or “the sect.”

 The founder and leader of physiocracy was François ______.

First Axiom

all wealth originated with the ____ and that agriculture alone could increase and multiply wealth.

Industry and commerce were basically sterile and could not add to the wealth created by the land.

Second Axiom

only abundance combined with high prices could create prosperity.

This could be obtained only if the “______,” which the physiocrats envisaged as being as immutable as the law of gravity, was allowed to act untrammeled.

______Absolute freedom of trade was necessary to stabilize prices at a fair level, and laissez faire was to restore the economic process to its natural course, from which all further benefits would flow.

Adam Smith (1723-1790)

British economist, whose treatise An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the ______was the first serious attempt to study the nature of capital and the historical development of industry and commerce.

He espoused three basic principals of economics in his attack on the economic system of Mercantilism.

First Principal

Nations should not rely on ______- each nation should produce what it does best without artificial barriers.

Second Principal

 The ______of _____ - he claimed that gold and silver were not the source of a nation’s wealth - labor was.

Third Principal

Capital is best employed under conditions of governmental noninterference, or laissez-faire, and free trade.

the production and exchange of goods can be stimulated only through the efficient operations of private industrial and commercial ______acting with a minimum of regulation and control by governments.

 To explain this concept of government maintaining a laissez-faire attitude toward commercial endeavors, Smith proclaimed the principle of the “______.”

The Invisible Hand

Every individual in pursuing his or her ______is led, as if by an invisible hand, to achieve the best good for all.

Therefore any interference with free competition by government is almost certain to be injurious.

The Function of Government

According to Smith, government only has three functions:

1.______from invasion (Army)

2.______(Police)

3.Provide certain ______.

The Later Enlightenment

Baron Paul d’Holbach

Reached a extreme degree of ______in his work System of Nature (1770) in which he said that men were machines and God, as a mere product of the human mind, was unnecessary for leading a moral life.

Marie-Jean de Condorcet

In his work The progress of the Human Mind he expressed the idea that human perfectability is limitless.

Jean Jacques Rousseau

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), French philosopher, social and political theorist, musician, botanist, and one of the most eloquent writers of the Age of Enlightenment.

In his Discourse on the Origins of Inequality of Mankind he says that ______was the source of inequality and the chief cause of crimes.

In The Social Contract, he expressed his belief that government was a ______and that freedom is achieved by being forced to follow the "______.”

Rousseau's influential novel, _____, deals with the key Enlightenment themes of proper child rearing and human education.

He believed that young children should be allowed to encounter nature directly and learn by experience - thus fostering a child’s ______.

This emphasis on the heart and sentiment over reason had a direct impact on the intellectual movement called ______.

Women in the Enlightenment

Mary Astell

The first self-avowed ______writer in English. Author of 2 great feminist works, A Serious Proposal to the Ladies (1697) and Some Reflections Upon Marriage (1700).

Daughter of a Newcastle coal merchant, Astell never married and was supported throughout her life by a series of wealthy female friends.

 Although she wrote anonymously, her authorship was widely known.

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

English author and feminist, born probably in London.

She became a member of an intellectual group that included the English poet and artist William _____, the Anglo-American political philosopher Thomas _____, and the English chemist Joseph Priestly.

Her best-known work, A ______of the Rights of Woman (1792), asserts that intellectual companionship is the ideal of marriage and pleads for equality of education and opportunity between the sexes.

Her daughter, Mary Wollstonecraft, became the wife of Percy Bysshe Shelley and a writer on her own (Frankenstein).

The Salons of Paris

 Women played an important role in the Enlightenment as hosts of gatherings of thinkers and artists called Salons.

The salons were usually run ______but ______guests.

They gave ______to both men and women and provided a forum for the serious discussion of the ideas of the philosophes.

Culture and Society in the Age of Enlightenment

  • Art in the Eighteenth Century
  • The ______and ______ styles of the 17th century continued into the 1700’s, but by 1730 a new style called Rococo had begun to influence architecture and the decorative arts.
  • Rococo
  • Rococo was born in ______.
  • Rococo characteristics show that it's an ______ of baroque, just as mannerism was an evolution of Renaissance.
  • It stresses grace and gentle action.
  • It fits harmoniously in the landscape, using reflections and mirrors to blur limits and create a world of _____.
  • The word rococo is a combination of the words "rocaille" (______) and "coquille" (_____), elements which inspire the first designs.
  • What interests the creators is the irregular and undulated shape of the shells and sea stones as well as that of weeds and other vegetal forms.
  • Most important is ______.
  • It tends to be totally ____ and asymmetric, based on irregular lines, and curves.
  • Topics are usually mundane and related to palace life.
  • Antoine ______ (1684 - 1721)
  • Painted scenes of upper class luxury and ______ refined beauty.
  • His paintings also reflected a sense of ______ over he transitory nature of beauty.
  • Italian Comedians, 1720
  • Embarkation for Cytheria – 1717 Louvre, Paris
  • François ______Boucher, François (1703-1770), French painter, noted for his pastoral and mythological scenes, whose work embodies the frivolity and sensuousness of the rococo style.
  • Jean-Honoré ______(1732-1806).
  • French painter whose scenes of frivolity and gallantry are among the most complete embodiments of the Rococo spirit. He was a pupil of Boucher,
  • Giovanni Battista ______
  • Best exemplifies the Rococo sense of enchantment and exuberance.
  • His masterpiece is the ceiling fresco of the “Four Continents” in the Bishop’s Palace in Würzburg, Germany.
  • The Rococo works fits perfectly with the Baroque architecture of the palace.
  • Copying Versailles
  • Schloss Nymphenburg, Munich
  • The Hermitage, Russia
  • Balthasar ______
  • German architect who was the foremost master of the late Baroque style.
  • In 1719 Neumann began directing construction of the new ______ (palace) for the prince-bishop in Würzburg.
  • The Residenz
  • By the 1740s it had advanced far enough for the painter G.B. ______ to decorate the palace's enormous ceilings.
  • Wedding Allegory - ceiling
  • Neumann’s second masterpiece is the pilgrimage church of the Seven Saints –Vierzehnheiligen in southern Germany.
  • VierzehnheiligenChurch
  • The Masterpiece of Dominikus Zimmermann is the ____Church (Wieskirche) or “meadow church” in the Alps of Bavaria.
  • Jacques-Louis _____
  • He had his first training with Boucher, a distant relative.
  • David went to Italy in 1776, having won the Prix de Rome.
  • In Italy, David was able to indulge his bent for the antique and came into contact with the initiators of the new ______ revival.
  • In 1780 he returned to Paris, and in the 1780s his position was firmly established as the embodiment of the social and moral reaction from the frivolity of the Rococo.
  • The Development of Music
  • The 17th and 18th centuries were the formative years of ______ music.
  • The _____, oratorio, concerto and ______ were all developed at this time.
  • The ______ led the way followed by the Germans, Austrians and English.
  • Most musicians, like artists, relied on a wealthy ______ for funding.
  • The Baroque in Music
  • From 1600 to 1750 the leading musical form in Europe is called ______
  • Baroque Defined
  • The English word baroque is derived from the Italian barocco, meaning bizarre, though probably exuberant would be a better translation more accurately reflecting the sense.
  • Bach and Handel
  • The two artists who best exemplify the Baroque period were the geniuses ____ and ______.
  • Georg Friederich Händel
  • Georg Friederich Händel was born in Halle (Germany), on February 23rd,1685, just a month before JS Bach was born in Eisenach, not so far to the south.
  • Handel's father intended him for the law, but his own musical inclinations soon prevailed.
  • Following his studies in Germany, Handel went to Italy where he spent more than three years, in Florence, Rome, Naples and Venice.
  • Handel left Italy early in 1710 and went to Hanover, where he was appointed Kapellmeister to the Elector, ______ Louis.
  • In 1705 George was naturalized by Act of Parliament, and in August 1714 the death of Queen Anne made him King of ______.
  • Handel,was to follow the Elector in adopting British nationality, and indeed part of Handel's success in London was due to the royal patronage of the Elector of Hanover, now King George I.
  • Handel’s ______
  • Johann Sebastian Bach
  • The different forms and styles of the baroque came together and were brought to perfection_in the music of JS Bach.
  • Johann Sebastian Bach came from a musical family stretching back through many generations.
  • The Bachs were well known throughout their "home ground" of Thuringia in what is now southeast ______.
  • He left 48 Preludes and ______ for the keyboard adopting the new "equal temperament" enabling all keys to be played equally and modulation between keys.
  • He left us the Art of the Fugue and the ______ Variations, a set of 30 Variations on a popular tune.
  • He also left numerous collections of chorale variations, canons, and fugues, as well as many pieces in more standardized form such as preludes, sonatas and concertos.
  • Add to that, some 200 cantatas, the Passions, and the monumental B-Minor Mass.
  • The Classical Period (1750-1830)
  • After Bach music took a different turn.
  • The music was quite different in character, expressing the new "gallant" style which was lighter, with less stress on pure form - and having its own set of "clichés"
  • Here we find composers such as Haydn and ______, to be followed by the "romantic" composers such as ______ and Tchaikovsky.