The Effect of Television

The Effect of Television

On Audience Perceptionof

Gayand Lesbian Stereotypes

Team Captain Planet:

Amy Rourke

Yun Chang

Brittany Jones

Sakura Robles

Deandre Williams

INTRODUCTION

Studies have shown the affect television can have ona viewer’s perception of the world around them, often causing heavy viewers to adopt common, conservative beliefs (Gerbner, 1980). Repeated exposure to similar portrayals of minority groups can lead to the mainstreaming of these beliefs, resulting in stereotypes. When stereotypes are formed group members are no longer judged as individuals, but instead viewed as one entity with the same set of characteristics. In the absence of personal experience, people often turn to media outlets, such as television, to form opinions about unknown groups.The familiarity of television and the emotional involvement that viewers often experience make them more open to be influenced by the portrayal of stereotypes (Fouts Inch, 2005). While some argue that stereotypes are inevitable because of basic human nature to categorize and simplify the external world, others view television as a strong force that often introduces and reinforces these stereotypes (Lee, 2009).

Although many studies have been devoted to the portrayal of gender, race, and class stereotypes within the media, recently, an increasing number of studies have been focused how homosexuality is portrayed in the media. Despite the fact that a significant number of people identify themselves as homosexual fewer research studies have been done on this group as compared to other minorities (Fout Inch, 2005). Past research has identified several common stereotypes shown on television, wherein homosexual people are portrayed as being humorous, marginal characters who engage in promiscuous or effeminate behaviors. The full effect of these portrayals on audiences is not yetknown (Avila-Saavedra, 2009;Calzo Ward, 2009; Chung, 2007). These stereotypes could have a real effect on how homosexuals are perceived and treated within society, and understanding the role of television on these stereotypes is imperative. This study examines the correlation between television viewing and the likelihood that heavyviewers will agree with common stereotypes about homosexuality. We expected to find a strong, positive correlation between the amount of television a viewer consumes and their agreement with stereotypes about homosexuality. From a theoretical perspective it seems likely that heavy television viewers, who are repeatedly exposed to stereotypes about homosexuality, would perceive these stereotypesas the norm for the gay and lesbian community.

RATIONALE

Homosexual people are clearly underrepresented on television, and the limited numbers of gay and lesbian characters that are portrayed have been shown to fit a number of identified stereotypes. Fouts and Inch (2005) foundthat television does not accurately depict society, identifying only two percent of characters in popular situational comedies as being homosexual, while 10 to 12 percent of Americans identify themselves as homosexual.

The limited, stereotypical portrayals of homosexual characters in the media could be contributing to the perceptions and attitudes toward the group. A recent study indicates 84.6 percent of teenagers who identified themselves as gay, lesbian, bisexual or transsexual, had been verbally harassed, 40.1 percent were physically harassed, and 18.8 percent were physically assaulted as a result of their sexuality (Khaduru, 2010). These statistics could be contributing to the growing number of teen suicides linked to harassment for sexuality. Many argue that suicide is not likely higher in the gay and lesbian community because they are implicitly more prone to this behavior, it instead stems from cultural reactions and perceptions toward the group (Savins-Williams, 1999).

Regardless of the intentions of television programming, or the responsibility of the media to accurately depict homosexuality, more consideration on this issue is warranted. As the government and the public places judgment on such pertinent issues as gay marriage, gay rights, hate crimes, discrimination, and military policies; it is important to understand how the perceptions and attitudes toward homosexuality are formed. Stereotypes can affect the way certain people are treated within a society, and they do not serve to illustrate the diversity that individuals possess.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Many theoretical viewpoints suggest a direct correlation between the way that people perceive groups as different from themselves and the amount of media they consume. Pro- and anti- gay messages often emerge in broadcast media as well as print media and could have a definite effect on how society perceives homosexuality (Atkinson, 2003; Jensen 1996). Gerbner (1980) found, as stated in his cultivation theory, that heavy television viewers not only are more likely to accept homosexual stereotypes as being true, they are also likely to internalize these messages, taking them on as personal beliefs. Further evidence suggests that this phenomenon is more prominent when a person’s only observation of a group is through media (Lee, 2009).

Gerbner found (1980), people are influenced by what they see on television. While Gerbner’s theory was applied to people’s perception of violence based on heavy or light television viewing, one of the main ideas of his theory states that heavy viewers of television undergo “mainstreaming”, or a “blurring, blending, and bending” which causes heavy viewers to adopt a common, conservative outlook on subjects. Viewers who are repeatedly exposed to images and stories that are similar were shown to adopt those ideas.

Bandura (2001) uses the social cognitive theory to suggest that humans attempt to categorize their experiences in a way that reduces the discrepancies between their observations and their beliefs. The images portrayed on television, even if they are inconsistent with reality, may serve as the basis from which people judge their experiences.

Many experts agree that, while gay and lesbian characters on television are more common today than in the past, these characters are still limited and are often portrayed in a stereotypical manner with minimal diversity depicted. Our news media is also more likely to cover stories related to homosexuality, yet they tend to portray the group in a stereotypical manner. Characters on a sitcom may be identified as homosexual,with their sexuality being a major component of their role and an important aspect of the plot line, rather than identifying as a fully developed character. A content analysis within the 2005-2006 television season showed that gay and lesbian characters comprise only 2 percent of the characters on the major networks (Evans, 2007).

Several stereotypes have been identified through the analysis of television programming featuring gay and lesbian people. These stereotypes include promiscuity, effeminate behavior, and the use of these characters to provide punch lines for jokes (Evans, 2007). Chung (2007) found that stereotypes are often easier to process and occur when people overlook the complex nature of humanity. Stereotypes often lead to prejudices, discrimination, and often a feeling of privilege by those who rely on stereotypes to categorize other groups as inferior. The prominent gay roles in television have been found to be lacking in meaningful romantic relationships and often serve a function related to heterosexuals (Papachrissi 2008). Chung (2008) found that media depictions of marginalized groups are often void of any true depth of personality or character, little empathy is given to homosexuals in the media. More often the perceived or stereotypical differences in members of these groups were exaggerated, making it easier for people to exclude these groups in society.

The subject of homosexuality in the media has been a controversial issue for some time. While the research available on the portrayal of homosexuality in the media is limited, examples of studies on the topic can be found dating back several decades. Fejes and Petrich (1993)found that stereotypes about homosexuality in the media have been pervasive throughout modern history. A notable report, which aired on CBS in 1967, illustrates one of television’s earliest depictions of negative stereotypes about gay men. The report, narrated by Mike Wallace, focused solely on gay men, excluding lesbians, and concluded with the phrase, “The average homosexual, if there be such, is promiscuous. He’s not interested in, nor capable of a lasting relationship like that of a heterosexual marriage.” (Laerme,1985). This early treatment of homosexuality may have influenced today’s media, and shows the possible roots of stereotypes about homosexuality.

While in the 1970’s, negative depictions of gay and lesbians remained ubiquitous, the upward trajectory of gay rights activismled to a strong demand for changes in network portrayals. This pressure caused television networks to show some variation in how they depicted gay people. More variations of homosexuality were evident on television, as illustrated by the popular sitcom,All in the Family,whichchallenged some gay stereotypes by depictingthe character of a masculine ex- football player who came out as gay (Hoy, 1981).

Demographic variables, such as age, education, sex, and race, and especially religiosity also play a crucial role in anti-gay attitudes (Brooks,2000, Dejowski, 1992, Herek, 2002; Lewis, 2003;Treas,2002.) These factors can also contribute to whether or not someone is likely to be influenced by the depictions of homosexuality in the media. Strong influences in these areas could be predictive of someone who would not be easily influenced by bias in the media.

Studies also found people likely to adopt attitudes that their social groups are portrayed to have in the media. People who belong to influential groups, like professional athletes and their fans, often mimic the attitudes of those like them and their depiction in the media. As these groups often characterize themselves against the stereotypes of homosexuality, by not including homosexuals into their group, these groups separate themselves from being characterized as having characteristics associated with homosexuality. A recent study found that 62 percent of sports fans believed that most Americans are not ready to accept and openly gay professional athlete (Wertheim, 2005).

Avila-Saavedra (2009) foundthat many constructed plots used in television follow ideas of heterosexism. Queer theory suggests that our culture views heterosexuality as the norm making other sexual preferences deviant to this norm. Papachrissi and Fernback (2008) make the distinction between heteronormative and homonormative discourse. Heteronormative discourse sets homosexuality as the polar opposite to heterosexuality. Many television programs use a heteronormative stance in order to create the illusion of acceptance while keeping the programming free from controversy. The stories shown on television are often framed in an “us” (heterosexuals) versus “them” (homosexuals) way. Conversely, a homonormative view would set homosexuality as unremarkable and commonplace while also categorizing other sexualities as different. Papachrissi and Fernback (2008) identified some television programs, such as Queer Eye for the Straight Guy, while still employing the use of gay stereotype, as displaying a homonormative view in which the straight men are the marginal class.

Research has shown that the controversial nature of sexuality and the lack of exposure to individuals who are homosexual can lead to the media being the primary, driving influence on how people perceive homosexuality. Calzo and Ward (2009) found that the influence of family, political affiliation and religious involvement also affected people’s perceptions of gays and lesbians. They also noted the importance of media influence on viewers’ perception of homosexuality in the absence of other influences or personal experience. A recent study by the Pew Research Center found that only 40 percent of Americans personally knew someone who was gay. Theoretically, applying the social learning theory, which assumes that people learn behaviors and attitudes through their life experiences, this means that media would be the logic source for information about homosexuality for at least 60 percent of Americans. This theory also assumes that the mass media will take the place of personal experience if none exists. People may be ignorant or afraid of the homosexual lifestyle, and use the media to define something which is foreign to them. The lack of education about sexuality at school or with peers may also cause people, especially young people to be influenced by media stereotypes (Chung, 2007).

Mazur and Emmers-Summer (2002) studied the impact of viewing a movie on participant’s attitudes towards homosexuality and nontraditional families. Focusing on movie portrayals of both homosexuality and nontraditional families could pose too broad an analysis to retain results. The movies in this study were viewed only once, which could have a less lasting effect than images repeatedly viewed. The two may not be interrelated and can be portrayed quite differently. While the social learning theory does support the idea that movies could affect a viewer’s attitude toward a certain lifestyle, the exposure of viewers may not have been to the extent that could impact an attitude. Mazur and Emmers-Summer found some correlation between movie viewing and positive attitudes about homosexuality, the results were not substantial. The media may then influence viewers’ perceptions and can lead to an oversimplification or stereotypical viewpoints (Mazur & Emmers-Summer, 2002). Clearly, a study on the similar effects that television can have on a heavy viewer could yield more substantial results.

METHODOLOGY

Participants

The participants in this study were a sampleof college students at a large university in Central Illinois. The sample consisted of 50% males and 50% females. Sixty-eightpercent of our sample group was between the ages of 19 year and 23 years.

Students who thought their grades in school were above average made up 48% of the sample, 34% of the sample had average grades, and 15% had grades of well above average. Race proportions of the respondents were as follows: 77% white, 6% Asian, 5% Latino, 5% Black African American, and 7% other races. Ninety one percent of the sample was heterosexual, 7% homosexual, and 1% was bisexual. The sample consisted of 40% liberals, 34% moderates, 16% conservatives, 8% very liberals, and 1% very conservative.

Students at a university were chosen because of their accessibility and willingness to participate. The sample size for this study was 100 students who were chosen based on accessibility. While these students are not be representative of the entire student population of 20,000, this sample size could serve as preliminary research to serve as a basis for further research.

Methods

A self administered survey was given to 100 college students on campus. The survey was conducted within a one-week period in October, 2010. Although researchers were available to answer questions, participants were not informed of the specific nature of the study. This method most effectively measures the correlation between our dependent and independent variables, and could be administered to a larger sample at another time.Statistics and correlations can easily be drawn from a survey. Economic factors and time constraints also influenced the decision to administer a survey.

The independent variable in this study is the amount of television viewing, measured in hours and minutes, and was measuredby the question, “On an average day,how many hours and minutes do you spending watchingtelevision?” While the research question focuses primarily on the effects of television viewing on the dependent variable, consumption of other media will be studied for insurance purposes. The other media that were also measured were TV news, internet, social media, magazines, radio, and studying. For example, radio use was measured by the question: On an average day, how many hours do you spend listening to the radio?” The dependent variables were measured through responses to a total of 25 items which dealt mainly with respondents’ attitudes, perceptions, and, behavior toward homosexuality. The responses were measured through the use of a five-point Likertscale, which ranged from“strongly agree” to “strongly disagree,” with“no opinion” as midpoint.

Conceptually and empirically, 25 items are reduced to indices of ‘perception,’ ‘attitude’and ‘behavior’. The dimensions tapped by the indices are asfollows:

Perceptions: A total of 14 variables measured students’ orientationstowards perception of homosexuality.

The specific questions are:

Heterosexual men are more masculine than homosexual men.

Lesbians are masculine.

All homosexual people are alike.

Religious people are heterosexual.

Being gay is a choice.

A person’s sexuality is a good indication of their personality.

Homosexual people are at higher risk to get AIDS.

The following questions were measured using a 7 point semantic scale, with 4 as a neutral midpoint:

Conservative to Liberal

Family oriented to not family oriented

Religious to non religious

Healthy to sickly

Honest to Decietful

Traditional to non traditional

Reserved to Outgoing

Attitudes: A total of 5 variables measured students’ orientationstoward attitudes regarding homosexuality. The specificquestions are:

Gay men want to make straight people gay.

Gay people should be able to legally marry each other.

Public displays of affection between two homosexual people are acceptable.

Homosexual couples should be able to adopt children.

Homosexuals should be able to openly serve in the U.S. armed forces.

Behavior: A total of 6variables measured students’ orientationstoward behaviors involving homosexuals.The specificquestions are:

I stay away from homosexuals.

I treat people the same, regardless of their sexuality.

I laugh when people pretend to be gay.

I openly support gay rights.

I have used gay slurs recently.

I have started fights with people because of their sexuality.

The data was collected and coded, and statistics were obtained through the use of SPSS statistical package.

RESULTS

The first part of our survey measured demographic variable and the independent variables. The first independent variable is general media exposure. This category also included studying and using the Internet. This was posed by the question “On an average day, how much time do you spend…” with continuous data used for the following categories: watching television; reading magazines; surfing the internet; listening to the radio; studying or doing homework; using social networking sites; watching television news.