TERMS AND THINGS FOR THE STUDY OF EARLY CHRISTIAN AND BYZANTINE ART
I. Early Christian People
Constantine the Great: ruled the Western Roman Empire 308-324, took over the eastern empire in 324, died 337 after being baptized on his deathbed. Supported Christianity strongly from 312 on. Built Constantinople (consecrated 330) and fostered a revival of Classicism in the arts.
Theodosius I (the "Great"): Roman emperor from 379-395, mainly in the east. Fostered "Theodosian Classicism" in the arts. Issued the Edict of Milan in 390 which made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire, and which outlawed sacrifices to pagan gods.
St. Helena: Constantine's mother (died 330), a devout Christian who built churches in Rome and the Holy Land, including the Shrine of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem (ca. 325-350).
II. Terms
Late Antique Style: A transitional style from Roman to Early Medieval Art. First seen in the later 2nd century, characterized by disinterest in natural proportions of the human body, changes in scale and non-naturalistic, symmetrical, or hieratic compositions (such as frontality) to depict the relative status of characters, and the use of the "black and white" style (heavy use of the running drill to create strong pictorial effects of light and dark) in sculpture. Major monuments are the Venice Tetrarchs and the Arch of Constantine.
Classicism: the attempt to evoke the naturalistic style and noble idealism characteristic of the dominant artistic style in the Mediterranean from the 5th century BCE through the 2nd century CE. An early example is the sarcophagus of Junius Bassus carved ca. 359, and depicting a sacrifice by a priestess. An ivory, showing the Resurrection, was done about 400 in much the same style. Another ivory, done in Constantinople in the early 6th century, depicts the Archangel Michael floating before and above an architectural niche. The style of this ivory recalls Greek art, but its etheriality is Medieval. In pictorial arts, a kind of Classicism can be seen in the mosaic of the Good Shepherd in the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia at Ravenna.
III. Art of the 3rd and 4th Centuries
Arch of Constantine, Rome: built in honor of Constantine 312-315, largely adorned with sculpture scavenged from imperial monuments of the 2nd century and altered to
include portraits of Constantine. The lower stories have 4th century work in a Late Antique style (Constantine orating to the Romans); this uses symmetrical and hieratic groupings with little attention to the correct proportions of the human body. The workmanship of these friezes is rather crude. Directly above are elegant round reliefs from the second century that show scenes of hunting and sacrifice.
Missorium of Theodosius: a silver paten (shallow dish) created for the tenth anniversary of Theodosius’ reign (388). It has reliefs on its interior depicting the blessings of Theodosius’ reign, in a kind of Late Antique Classicism, featuring elongated and simplified figures. At the bottom, a somewhat disjoint Mother Earth (Terra Mater) reclines holding a cornucopia while Cupids sport about her ( symbols of Fertility). Above a central and large Theodosius (hieratic
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proportions) sits in his palace (framed by an arch). To the sides are his smaller sons (successors) enthroned, then at sides attendants. All the imperial figures are frontal.
Dura Europos: a Syrian city ruled by Rome 166-256, when destroyed. Preserves a Synagogue painted with scenes from the Old Testament (c. 240) and the earliest Christian church (a simple house). Last has a room used as a Baptistery (c. 230) painted with scenes of the Good Shepherd with Adam and Eve (in the lunette over the font), and the three Marys at the empty tomb and other scenes on the side wall.
Jonah Statuettes: a group of three statuettes from Aisa Minor (modern Turkey) date to the mid third century and illustrate the story of Jonah as an allegory of Christian salvation. They probably decorated a fountain in a wealthy Christian’s home
.
Catacombs: underground group cemeteries at Rome from the 2nd through the 5th centuries. After 200 many bear Christian paintings in a sketchy style. Earliest Christian cemetery seems to the Catacombs of St. Callixtus (lst half of 3rd). Most of the Christian paintings of the third century are of the signitive sort (i.e they are signs more than “pictures”) which present symbols evocative of elements of faith (Christ as Good Shepherd, Orant or praying figure); the few narrative scenes depict stories of salvation from the Old Testament (such as Jonah, Three Children in Furnace). Some (Christ as Sun God) may involve conflation of Jesus with Pagan gods (such as Sol Invictus, the Invincible Sun).
Good Shepherd: The earliest way Jesus is represented. During the third and the fourth centuries, catacomb paintings and sarcophagi depict the parable of the Good Shepherd as an allegory of Christian salvation. The last and most elegant GS is a mosaic lunette in the Mausoleum of Gall Placidia at Ravenna (425-450).
Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus: Christian sarcophagus of the Prefect (Mayor) of Rome, who died in 359. Shows stumpy but vaguely classicizing figures between columnar frames illustrating scenes of the Old and the New Testament. Much easier to "read" visually than earlier 4th century Christian sarcophagi, which have as style closer to the Constantinian work of Constantine's Arch and very crowded compositions. The story emphasizes Christian trials and ultimate salvation, and, notably, the church hierarchy, since the center scene shows Christ in heaven passing scrolls to Saints Peter and Paul.
III. Churches in Rome
Old St. Peter's: great five aisled basilica on supposed site of St. Peter's grave, faces west (i.e. its apse and altar are at the west). Had transept at the sanctuary roofed at same height as nave, giving the church a pronounced cross-shape. In front of church was a great colonnaded Atrium. Begun by Constantine and finished ca. A.D. 400. Its interior was decorated during the first half of the 5th century. Opposed scenes of the Old and the New Testaments on the nave walls were particularly influential. The apse had a mosaic of the Tradition Legis (Christ giving the Law to Peter, symbolizing the authority of the Pope).
Santa Sabina: a parish church built in the 420s in the form of a three-aisled basilica with no transept. The columns of the nave arcade are reused from an imperial building; it is tall and thin (proportion of H to W 3:1). There is a mosaic of Christ in the apse behind the altar.
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Santa Maria Maggiore: large basilica built ca. 410-430. Interior has mosaics on the side walls of the nave which depict scenes of the lives of Abraham to Joshua (Jews Attack Moses), emphasizing church doctrine and the authority of the church hierarchy. These appear to be taken from an illuminated Bible, and still are relatively naturalistic in style. The Triumphal Arch has scenes of the early life of Christ. Mosaics laid 432-440.
Santa Costanza, Rome: round mausoleum of Constantine's daughter Constantina (died 350). A typical Late Roman/Early Christian round building of brick faced concrete, it preserves mosaics in the ceiling of its aisle which show scenes of vintaging (with a “portrait” of Constantina?). This can be seen as an allegorical reference to Christ, who calls himself the " vine of the true faith" in the Book of John, but is also a common pagan salvation motif. Most of the art in the chapel looks more pagan than Christian.
IV. Religious Buildings in Ravenna
Mausoleum of Galla Placidia:a small, cross-shaped chapel dedicated to Saint Lawrence built by the Roman empress 425-450, and later used as her funerary chapel. It has extensive mosaic decoration in a Classicizing Early Medieval style.featuring symmetry, frontality and simplified figures. The most notable scene if the Good Shepherd over the door (on the interior, i.e.seen by those leaving).
Baptistery of the Orthodox: octagonal chapel featuring an interior remodeled c. 460 by Bishop Neon. This depicts stucco reliefs of prophets on the upper walls beneath a mosic decorated dome. The dome has a central scene of John the Baptist baptizing Christ (in a gold background). Below this are two registers with blue backgrounds. In the inner, the Apostles carrying crowns march, separated by candelabra. Above their heads are swags of drapery. Below is a register of alternating empty thrones in a paradise agrde, and latar-like book stands with open Bibles. The dome is kind of busy and odd, and not wholly successful artistically, but shows Christian artists grappling with how to decorate a circular space.
Early Byzantine Art (6th century)
I. People
Justinian: Byzantine emperor 527-565 who tried to recapture all of the Roman empire, succeeding to a certain degree (Italy, North Africa, southern Spain). Built much at Constantinople and elsewhere in his empire (Ravenna and Ephesus). Reign was height of early Byzantine art. Wife Theodora was a notable figure.
II. Monuments of the 6th Century
Archangel Michael leaf: made in Constantinople ca. 519, very classicizing style, but illogical space, since the archangel is somehow within yet floating in front of the arch that frames him.
Barberini Ivory: complex rendition of ca. 540 showing a mounted emperor, probably Justinian, at center triumphing over a barbarian in the presence of Mother Earth. Once flanked by generals (one survives). Above the emperor is a bust of Christ with angels, below barbarians bear tribute. Made in Constantinople.
Icon of the Virgin with Saints: At Sinai, but probably painted at Constantinople during the first half of the 7th century. Shows the Virgin enthroned with the Christ Child between military saints (George and Theodore), behind two angels gaze up to heaven. Illusionism of the angels constrasts oddly with the general two-dimensionality of the figures.
Rossano Gospels: Purple New Testament illuminated in Constantinople in the first half of the 6th century, preserved in a little church in southern Italy (at Rossano, hence the name). The illustrations are charming and somewhat illusionistic, and follow a narrative order which suggests that they were intended to accompany the text above or below them in the original (Mark Composing his Gospel).
Rabbula Gospels: Copied in a monastery in Syria in 587 by the monk Rabbula. Illustrations show a tendency to flatten figures, but the full-page scenes apparently follow the compositions of wall-paintings and have a limited naturalistic space. The Crucifixion scene shows Christ wearing a garment (the colobium) to avoid nudity. The Ascension features a central Virgin.
III. Terms
Transfiguration: Early sign of Christ's divinity in the Gospels. John, Peter and James see Christ in Divine Light with Elijah and Moses on a mountain top. Appears 549 in metaphoric form in the apse mosaic of St. Apollinaire in Classe at Ravenna, in narrative form in the apse of the Church of St. Catherine at Mt.Sinai (548-565).
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IV. Churches
Hagia Sophia, Constantinople: great, essentially central-plan basilica church (c. 225 X 240 m.) built for Justinian by the mathematician Anthemius of Tralles and the physicist Isidorus of Miletus 532-37. Notable for its huge central dome (now 184 feet tall) and its magnificently decorated interior. Name means "Holy Wisdom".
Church of Saint Catherine, Mt.Sinai: remote monastery on mountain where Moses received the Ten Commandments, notable for its apse mosaic depicting the Transfiguration in a transcendent style (548-565). An example of imperial patronage far from Constantinople: it has an inscribed dedication touting Justinian. Significant early icons survive there also.
V. Religious Buildings at Ravenna of Early Byzantine Date
San Vitale: central plan church begun in 527 and consecrated in 548 to Ravenna's patron saint; the presbyterium and apse preserve their mosaics. Apse shows Christ enthroned on a globe between St. Vitalis and Bishop Ecclesius, who offers Christ the church which he began. To sides of the apse on the lower walls are Processions of Justinian and his retinue (including Bishop Maximianus) and Theodora and her court bearing gifts. Presbytery vault has the Lamb of God in the shrubbery of Paradise, then on side walls evangelists at the base of the vault, beneath these Old Testament Prophets and in the lunettes scenes of Abraham's life (north) and the sacrifices of Abel and Melchizedek (south).
Sant' Apollinaire in Classe: basilica built in Ravenna's port c. 525-549. Apse mosaic shows Saint Apollinaire (the first bishop of Ravenna) and twelve lambs (the Apostles=church). Above, Christ is represented by a huge cross in a super-halo, with busts of Moses and Elijah floating in a gold sky to either side, with three lambs below. The apse thus is a symbolic rendition of the Transfiguration in Paradise. Above, on Triumphal Arch, a central bust of Christ is framed by six sheep to either side issuing from a city (Heavenly Bethlehem and Jerusalem), symbolizing the Paradise for the Faithful.
TERMS AND THINGS FOR MIDDLE BYZANTINE ART
I. THE MIDDLE BYZANTINE AGE, 843-1204: EVENTS AND PEOPLE
Iconoclasm: literally "image breaking". Belief that god should not be represented visually, nor should anything in churches besides visual symbols (i.e. the cross the apse of Hagia Eirene, Constantinople). Emperors were mainly iconoclasts 726-843, with a consequent gap in Byzantine art.
The Macedonian Emperors: ruled 867-1050s. The 10th century in Byzantine culture is called the "Macedonian Renaissance" for its strong Classical revival in the arts, especially illuminated manuscripts. The Macedonian emperors were highly educated, and interested in preserving Classical culture to create a Christian Classical state. During this period the Slavs, including the Russians, were converted to Orthodoxy.
Basil II the Bulgarslayer: Emperor 976-1025. He conquered Bulgaria and brought the Byzantine Empire to its greatest territorial extent in the Middle Byzantine period.
Battle of Manzikert: the Turks destroyed the Byzantine army at this battle in eastern Asia Minor in 1071, thereafter Asia Minor (Anatolia) was mostly lost to the Turks.
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Comnenoi: Family that ruled the Byzantine Empire 1081-11180s. Twelfth century Byzantine art is often called "Comnene".
Fourth Crusade: diverted through Venetian connivance to Constantinople in 1204, captured and sacked the city. Constantinople and much of Greece remained under Latin (i.e. western European) control until 1261.
II. MIDDLE BYZANTINE ART AND ARCHITECTURE
Panagia, Hagia Sophia, Constantinople: an enthroned Virgin with the Christ child which was placed in the conch of the main apse soon after 843. Shows a vaguely classicizing style. A similar style can be seen in the image of St. John Chrysotomos in the nave.
Mosaic of Emperor in proskynesis: Over one of the entry doors from the narthex to the cella in Hagia Sophia, it shows an emperor (Leo VI) bowing in proskynesis to an enthroned Christ. Christ has medallions of the Virgin and an archangel to either side. If Leo VI, the mosaic should date around 900.
Joshua Ro1l: a manuscript made up of fifteen sheets of paper glued together to create a scrool of the text of Joshua, illustrated with tinted drawings (Joshua and the Angel) in a classcicizing style c. 900. Made for an emperor in Constantinople.
Paris Psalter: illuminated in Constantinople during the first half of the 10th century, shows very Classicistic renderings of the Life of David (David composing the Psalms) and other scenes.
Twelve feasts of the Orthodox Church: the main religious festivals of the eastern church; generally used in Middle Byzantine mosaic decoration as the only scenes from the Bible to appear in the sanctuary of a church. These are: Annunciation, Nativity, Presentation in the Temple, Baptism, Transfiguration, Raising of Lazarus, Entry to Jerusalem, Crucifixion, Harrowing of Hell (Anastasis), Ascension, Pentecost, and the Dormition of the Virgin. They are depicted on a notable Late Byzantine mosaic icon (ca. 1340).
Hosios Loukas: monastery in central Greece. Its main church (Katholikon), a domed octagon, was built ca. 1020 and decorated with mosaics which illustrate the church liturgy and hierarchy. Christ Pantokrator was in the dome, the Virgin in the apse, the Pentecost in the subsidiary dome over the sanctuary, the spandrels have the four evangelists, pendentives have four feasts of the church (Nativity), with further scenes in the narthex (Crucifixion). On the upper walls and vaults of the side passages are saints (over 140 of them!). The style of the mosaics is unclassical and schematic, and probably was done by local or provincial monastic artists.
Daphne: monastery church near Athens decorated with mosaics ca. 1080-1100 in a classicizing style (Crucifixion). Notable for its severe Pantokrator in the dome. Artists were from Constantinople.
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III. Sicily
Cefalù, Sicily: Romanesque cathedral with an apse decorated by Byzantine mosaic painters ca. 1145-1148; the style is linear but very elegant and comprises the best surviving Byzantine mosaic work of the 12th century. Notable for its great, gentle Pantokrator in the conch of the apse. Most of the mosaics of the side walls of the choir and those of the vault at Cefalù were done by Sicilian artists ca. 1150-1175.