Table 1 Socio-Economic Characteristics of Rural Households with and Without Migrants, 2009

Tables and Captions

Table 1 Socio-economic characteristics of rural households with and without migrants, 2009

All households / Migrant household=1 / Test statistics
χ2 / p
1 / 0
Number of rural HH / 1727.00 / 479.00 / 1248.00 / --
HH size / 4.97 / 5.03 / 4.95 / 0.677 / 0.411
Dependency ratio / 0.52 / 0.60 / 0.49 / 10.067 / 0.002
Age of HH head / 49.85 / 52.47 / 48.85 / 23.354 / 0.000
Years of education of HH head / 10.95 / 10.68 / 11.06 / 2.132 / 0.144
Number of migrants / 0.71 / 2.54 / 0.00 / 1673.087 / 0.000
Highest level of education in HH
- Primary School (up to 4 years) or lower / 2.21 / 2.30 / 2.17 / 0.025 / 0.875
- Secondary General School (~ 8 years) / 8.25 / 9.81 / 7.64 / 2.149 / 0.143
- Vocational or Grammar School (~12 years) / 50.35 / 47.60 / 51.41 / 2.005 / 0.157
- University degree / 39.20 / 40.29 / 38.78 / 0.333 / 0.564
Household income (€) / 4,819 / 5,177 / 4,682 / 0.420 / 0.517
Household income incl. remittances (€) / 5,249 / 6,728 / 4,682 / 65.323 / 0.000
PC income, equivalised (€) / 1,889 / 2,017 / 1,840 / 2.265 / 0.133
PC income incl. remittances, equivalised (€) / 2,060 / 2,633 / 1,840 / 82.672 / 0.000
Income shares (%)
- Waged employment / 66.62 / 58.83 / 74.52 / 106.554 / 0.000
- Self-employment / 10.66 / 6.47 / 11.22 / 4.440 / 0.035
- Remittances / 5.14 / 13.15 / 0.00 / 811.168 / 0.000
- Other income / 17.58 / 18.16 / 12.50 / 15.536 / 0.000

Source: Own calculation based on KRS 2010 data.

Note: N=1,727 rural households; HH=household, PC = per capita
Test statistics refer to a Kruskal-Wallis-Test.

Table 2 Socio-economic characteristics according to income classes, 2009

All
households / Income class (tertile) / Test statistics
χ2 / p
1 / 2 / 3
Number of rural HH / 1727.00 / 576.00 / 575.00 / 576.00 / ---
Share of remittances receiving HH in % / 16.79 / 9.38 / 14.43 / 26.56 / 72.427 / 0.000
HH size / 4.97 / 5.60 / 4.90 / 4.43 / 0.049 / 0.976
Dependency ratio / 0.52 / 0.65 / 0.47 / 0.43 / 3.078 / 0.215
Age of HH head / 49.85 / 50.10 / 50.13 / 49.32 / 1.766 / 0.414
Number of migrants / 0.71 / 0.42 / 0.64 / 1.06 / 3.998 / 0.135
Share of HH with at least one migrant / 27.74 / 17.19 / 25.39 / 40.63 / 81.249 / 0.000
Years of education of HH head / 10.95 / 10.15 / 11.18 / 11.52 / 4.574 / 0.102
Highest level of education in HH in %
- Primary School (up to 4 years) or lower / 2.21 / 4.20 / 1.39 / 1.04 / 6.171 / 0.046
- Secondary General School (~ 8 years) / 8.25 / 13.46 / 5.39 / 5.91 / 49.644 / 0.000
- Vocational or Grammar School (~12 years) / 50.35 / 51.75 / 52.87 / 46.43 / 4.087 / 0.130
- University degree / 39.20 / 30.59 / 40.35 / 46.61 / 28.244 / 0.000
Household income (€) / 4,819 / 2,506 / 4,255 / 7,695 / 8.427 / 0.015
Household income incl. remittances (€) / 5,249 / 2,577 / 4,469 / 8,700 / 8.570 / 0.014
PC income, equivalised (€) / 1,889 / 852 / 1,599 / 3,216 / 9.020 / 0.011
PC income incl. remittances, equivalised (€) / 2,060 / 877 / 1,667 / 3,637 / 9.449 / 0.009
Income shares (%)
- Waged employment / 66.62 / 54.07 / 73.28 / 72.50 / 2.038 / 0.361
- Self-employment / 10.66 / 14.44 / 9.96 / 7.59 / 3.667 / 0.160
- Remittances / 5.14 / 2.59 / 4.05 / 8.77 / 6.000 / 0.050
- Other income / 17.58 / 28.89 / 12.72 / 11.14 / 2.352 / 0.308
HH with remittances as main income source (%) / 3.65 / 2.08 / 1.74 / 7.12 / 29.688 / 0.000
Household spending (€ per month) / 130.80 / 83.28 / 130.10 / 179.66
Household food expenditures (%) / 40.63 / 44.56 / 40.70 / 38.28
Share in all household incomes (%) / 100.00 / 16.37 / 28.35 / 55.28
Upward shift compared to tertile based on counterfactual migrant incomes / 8.51 / -- / 6.09 / 19.44

Source: Own calculation based on KRS 2010 data.

Note: N=1,727 rural households; Tertile 1 = Income class with the lowest per capita income (incl. remittances) etc.

HH=household, PC = per capita
The test statistics refer to a Kruskal-Wallis-Test.

Table 3 Poverty in rural Kosovo (2009)
Yearly income (€) / Headcount-index / Poverty deficit / Poverty
severity / Headcount index
without remittances / counterfactual incomes
Absolute poverty line
€ 1.55 line, 2009 prices* / 566 / 0.07 / 0.02 / 0.01 / 0.09 / 0.07
PPP-US$ 4.30 line / 1,453 / 0.45 / 0.16 / 0.08 / 0.51 / 0.48
Relative poverty line
60% of sample median** / 930 / 0.20 / 0.06 / 0.03 / 0.22 / 0.21
Source: Own calculation based on KRS 2010 data.
N=8,591 rural household members from both subgroups with and without migrants
*Absolute poverty line used by the World Bank (2011) for Kosovo on the basis of a cost-of-basic needs approach for 2009.
**This poverty line corresponds to 60% of the median equivalised per capita income within the sample.
Table 4 Average treatment effect on migrant households
Variable / Sample / Treated / Controls / Difference / Std. Err. / T-stat
Per capita income (pcincequrem) / Unmatched / 2578.85378 / 1834.50793 / 744.345851 / 113.049411 / 6.58
ATT / 1834.50793 / 1893.62923 / 685.224549 / 160.721832 / 4.26
Test for significance based on AI robust Std. Err. ***
according to Abadie and Imbens (2012) / 687.5878 / 157.1407 / 4.38

Source: Own calculation based on KRS 2010 data.

Table 5 Income distribution and remittances (2009)
Gini coefficient
§  on the basis of equivalised per capita incomes / 0.37
§  remittances excluded / 0.36
§  using counterfactual incomes / 0.35
Decomposed Gini coefficients (elasticity in brackets)
§  on the basis of waged incomes / 0.38 ( 0.029)
§  on the basis of self-employment / 0.19 (-0.044)
§  on the basis of remittances / 0.67 ( 0.069)
§  on the basis of other incomes / 0.22 (-0.054)

Source: Own calculation based on KRS 2010 data.

Note: N=1,727 rural households from both subgroups with and without migrants

Table 6 Logit regression on successful migration (quintile upward move), 2009
Independent variables / Coefficient / Std. Err. / Sig. / Exp(B) / 95% Conf. Interval
agehhh / 0.171 / 0.067 / 0.011 / 1.186 / 1.039 / 1.353
agehhh2 / -0.002 / 0.001 / 0.006 / 0.998 / 0.997 / 0.999
genderhhh / 0.607 / 0.419 / 0.148 / 1.834 / 0.807 / 4.170
eduyhhh / -0.052 / 0.053 / 0.328 / 0.949 / 0.856 / 1.053
unemployed / -0.720 / 0.329 / 0.028 / 0.487 / 0.255 / 0.927
Albanian / 0.702 / 0.387 / 0.069 / 2.018 / 0.946 / 4.308
maxeduhigh / 0.796 / 0.326 / 0.015 / 2.216 / 1.170 / 4.198
depratio / -0.725 / 0.257 / 0.005 / 0.484 / 0.293 / 0.801
sumofactive / -0.437 / 0.112 / 0.000 / 0.646 / 0.519 / 0.804
nomigr / -0.020 / 0.068 / 0.765 / 0.980 / 0.857 / 1.120
munrem2009_2 / 0.000 / 0.000 / 0.000 / 1.000 / 1.000 / 1.000
rem / 0.016 / 0.006 / 0.010 / 1.017 / 1.004 / 1.029
cfpcinc / -0.002 / 0.000 / 0.000 / 0.998 / 0.998 / 0.999
Prishtina / -0.021 / 0.712 / 0.976 / 0.979 / 0.243 / 3.949
Mitrovica / -0.763 / 0.758 / 0.314 / 0.466 / 0.105 / 2.062
Peje / -0.763 / 0.768 / 0.320 / 0.466 / 0.104 / 2.098
Gjilan / -0.612 / 0.768 / 0.426 / 0.542 / 0.120 / 2.443
Prizren / -0.056 / 0.762 / 0.942 / 0.946 / 0.212 / 4.209
Ferizaj / -0.067 / 0.748 / 0.928 / 0.935 / 0.216 / 4.049
constant / -0.037 / 1.909 / 0.985 / 0.964
Number of observations = 389 migrant households
chi2(19)=175.063
Prob > chi2=0.000
Nagelkerke R2 = 0.484
Hosmer Lemeshow chi2 (8) = 4.324
Prob > chi2 = 0.827

Source: Own calculation based on KRS 2010 data.

Note: Dependent variable: successful migration (dummy that turns 1 if household moves upwards to a higher quintile compared to the counterfactual situation; for migrant household starting from the highest quintile a 20% increase in incomes turns the dummy to 1)

Appendix

Table A1: Descriptive statistics of variables in the PSM logit model

Independent variables / Mean / percentage share (for dummies) / Std.Dev.
migranthh / Household with at least one migrant / 28% / --
agehhh / Age of household head / 48.71 / 13.42
agehhh2 / Squared age of household head / 2552.52 / 1342.92
eduyhhh / Years of education (household head) / 11.06 / 3.27
sumofactive / Number of household members in active age / 3.61 / 1.59
sharefemale / Share of female household members / 46.26 / 16.85
logmunrem09 / Log of remittances at municipality level in 2009 / 5.61 / 0.88
genderhhh / Gender of household head is male / 89% / --
albanian / Ethnicity is Albanian / 78% / --
Prishtina / Region is Prishtina / 26% / --
Mitrovica / Region is Mitrovica / 17% / --
Peje / Region is Peje / 13% / --
Gjilan / Region is Gjilan / 12% / --
Prizren / Region is Prizren / 15% / --
Gjakove / Region is Gjakove / 6% / --
Ferizaj / Region is Ferizaj / 11% / --

Source: Own calculation based on KRS 2010 data.

Note: N=1,472

Table A2 PSM logit results - psmatch2: NN (3)
Independent variables / Coefficient / Std. Err. / z / P>׀z׀ / 95% Conf. Interval
agehhh / -0.058655 / 0.028454 / -2.06 / 0.039 / -0.114424 / -0.002886
agehhh2 / 0.000785 / 0.000284 / 2.76 / 0.006 / 0.000228 / 0.001341
eduyhhh / 0.024186 / 0.022568 / 1.07 / 0.284 / -0.020047 / 0.068419
genderhhh / 0.453540 / 0.198055 / 2.29 / 0.022 / 0.065359 / 0.841721
sumofactive / -0.099373 / 0.041829 / -2.38 / 0.018 / -0.181355 / -0.017391
sharefemale / -0.006249 / 0.003798 / -1.65 / 0.100 / -0.013694 / 0.001195
Albanian / 0.968686 / 0.176549 / 5.49 / 0.000 / 0.622657 / 1.314715
logmunrem09 / 0.482298 / 0.106541 / 4.53 / 0.000 / 0.273482 / 0.691115
Prishtina / -0.867002 / 0.224440 / -3.86 / 0.000 / -1.306896 / -0.427107
Mitrovica / -1.013597 / 0.247512 / -4.10 / 0.000 / -1.498712 / -0.528482
Peje / -0.645802 / 0.297457 / -2.17 / 0.030 / -1.228807 / -0.062798
Gjilan / -0.805333 / 0.305919 / -2.63 / 0.008 / -1.404923 / -0.205743
Prizren / -1.348645 / 0.305634 / -4.41 / 0.000 / -1.947676 / -0.749614
Gjakove / -0.953433 / 0.352590 / -2.70 / 0.007 / -1.644497 / -0.262369
Ferizaj / 0 / (omitted)
Constant / -3.056134 / 0.936737 / -3.26 / 0.001 / -4.892105 / -1.220163
Number of observations = 1,472
LR chi2(8)=129.31
Prob > chi2=0.0000
Pseudo R2 = 0.0768
psmatch2 treatment assignment:
1,472 on support, thereof 381 treated, 1,091 untreated

Source: Own calculation based on KRS 2010 data.

Note: Dependent variable: migrant

Table A3 Testing the balance of covariates and absolute bias reduction
Mean / % reduct / t-test
Variable / Treated / Control / %bias / bias / t / p>t
agehhh / Unmatched / 51.184 / 47.844 / 24.3 / 4.21 / 0.000
Matched / 51.184 / 51.409 / -1.6 / 93.2 / -0.21 / 0.833
agehhh2 / Unmatched / 2831.7 / 2455 / 27.3 / 4.75 / 0.000
Matched / 2831.7 / 2865.1 / -2.4 / 91.1 / -0.30 / 0.764
eduyhhh / Unmatched / 10.816 / 11.148 / -9.9 / -1.71 / 0.088
Matched / 10.816 / 10.784 / 1.0 / 90.3 / 0.12 / 0.904
genderhhh / Unmatched / 1.1601 / 1.0926 / 20.4 / 3.64 / 0.000
Matched / 1.1601 / 1.1505 / 2.9 / 85.7 / 0.37 / 0.714
sumofactive / Unmatched / 3.4777 / 3.6627 / -11.5 / -1.96 / 0.050
Matched / 3.4777 / 3.4103 / 4.2 / 63.6 / 0.59 / 0.552
sharefemale / Unmatched / 45.879 / 46.392 / -3.0 / -0.51 / 0.609
Matched / 45.879 / 46.465 / -3.4 / -14.3 / -0.47 / 0.641
Albanian / Unmatched / 0.86089 / 0.74702 / 29.0 / 4.62 / 0.000
Matched / 0.86089 / 0.85827 / 0.7 / 97.7 / 0.10 / 0.917
logmunrem09 / Unmatched / 5.7973 / 5.5441 / 28.1 / 4.84 / 0.000
Matched / 5.7973 / 5.7649 / 3.6 / 87.2 / 0.47 / 0.638
Prishtina / Unmatched / 0.24409 / 0.26948 / -5.8 / -0.97 / 0.333
Matched / 0.24409 / 0.23535 / 2.0 / 65.5 / 0.28 / 0.778
Mitrovica / Unmatched / 0.11549 / 0.18332 / -19.1 / -3.07 / 0.002
Matched / 0.11549 / 0.11636 / -0.2 / 98.7 / -0.04 / 0.970
Peje / Unmatched / 0.18898 / 0.11091 / 22.0 / 3.90 / 0.000
Matched / 0.18898 / 0.17323 / 4.4 / 79.8 / 0.56 / 0.573
Gjilan / Unmatched / 0.14436 / 0.10724 / 11.2 / 1.94 / 0.052
Matched / 0.14436 / 0.14173 / 0.8 / 92.9 / 0.10 / 0.918
Prizren / Unmatched / 0.12073 / 0.16499 / -12.7 / -2.06 / 0.039
Matched / 0.12073 / 0.12686 / -1.8 / 86.2 / -0.26 / 0.798
Gjakove / Unmatched / 0.03412 / 0.06783 / -15.4 / -2.41 / 0.016
Matched / 0.03412 / 0.04112 / -3.2 / 79.2 / -0.51 / 0.612
Ferizaj / Unmatched / 0.15223 / 0.09624 / 17.0 / 3.01 / 0.003
Matched / 0.15223 / 0.16535 / -4.0 / 76.6 / -0.50 / 0.621

Source: Own calculation based on KRS 2010 data.

Table A4 R2 of raw and matched model
Sample / Pseudo R2 / LR chi2 / p>chi2 / Mean bias / Median bias
Raw / 0.077 / 129.36 / 0.000 / 17.1 / 17.0
Matched / 0.002 / 1.94 / 1.000 / 2.4 / 2.4

Source: Own calculation based on KRS 2010 data.

Table A5 Rosenbaum bounds test for sensitivity
Gamma / sig+ / sig- / t-hat+ / t-hat- / CI+ / CI-
1 / 0.000035 / 0.000035 / 271.023 / 271.023 / 136.172 / 410.617
1.05 / 0.000181 / 5.6e-06 / 239.24 / 300.722 / 108.94 / 440.263
1.1 / 0.000746 / 8.4e-07 / 211.54 / 328.372 / 81.9984 / 471.312
1.15 / 0.002518 / 1.2e-07 / 186.112 / 355.035 / 57.0033 / 502.633
1.2 / 0.007134 / 1.5e-08 / 164.268 / 381.477 / 33.1183 / 531.912
1.25 / 0.017358 / 1.9e-09 / 140.908 / 405.375 / 10.1735 / 559.488
1.3 / 0.03697 / 2.2e-10 / 119.475 / 428.967 / -10.8033 / 583.625
1.35 / 0.070077 / 2.5e-11 / 98.0617 / 451.613 / -31.11 / 608.927
1.4 / 0.119939 / 2.7e-12 / 78.2666 / 476.238 / -51.5867 / 634.227
1.45 / 0.18774 / 2.8e-13 / 59.0133 / 500.197 / -70.2983 / 658.962
1.5 / 0.271833 / 2.9e-14 / 39.7583 / 523.185 / -87.79 / 683.047
1.55 / 0.367825 / 2.9e-15 / 22.3683 / 545.57 / -105.738 / 707.617
1.6 / 0.469467 / 2.2e-16 / 5.07 / 564.853 / -122.433 / 731.688
1.65 / 0.56999 / 0 / -10.7767 / 583.6 / -139.245 / 753.683
1.7 / 0.663412 / 0 / -26.235 / 603.748 / -156.37 / 777.442
1.75 / 0.745442 / 0 / -42.4683 / 620.632 / -172.863 / 800.18
1.8 / 0.813817 / 0 / -56.7883 / 640.997 / -187.633 / 820.267
1.85 / 0.868153 / 0 / -70.8183 / 659.81 / -202.118 / 841.397
1.9 / 0.909476 / 0 / -84.635 / 678.265 / -215.663 / 861.04
1.95 / 0.939656 / 0 / -97.5417 / 696.607 / -229.763 / 882.158
2 / 0.960887 / 0 / -110.449 / 715.229 / -243.76 / 904.348

Source: Own calculation based on KRS 2010 data.