Report
Winter-time pollution and winter smog problems in Budapest, 2001
Department of Environmental Sciences and Policy
Central European University
November 24, 2003
Contents
Introduction
Difference between summer and winter distribution of pollutants in Budapest......
Which parts of the city suffer the worst levels of pollution in winter time and why......
Spatial distribution of SO2 and dust concentrations in Budapest
Analysis of the air pollution levels for the weekends and holidays and for the whole winter period 2001...
Influence of meteorological factors......
Conclusion......
References......
Annex......
The report was prepared by:
Gasparishvili Ilya
Hristov Iordan
Hasanli Pari
Jeges Daniel
Manukyan Arman
Novikov Viktor
Savcov Arina
Introduction
Sulfur dioxide. This substance belongs to the family of sulfur oxide gases (SOx). These gases dissolve easily in water. Sulfur is prevalent in all raw materials, including crude oil, coal, and ore that contains common metals like aluminum, copper, zinc, lead, and iron. SOx gases are formed when fuel containing sulfur, such as coal and oil, is burned, and when gasoline is extracted from oil, or metals are extracted from ore. SO2 dissolves in water vapor to form acid, and interacts with other gases and particles in the air to form sulfates and other products that can be harmful to people and their environment.
Over 65% of SO2 released to the air, or more than 13 million tons per year, comes from electric utilities, especially those that burn coal. Other sources of SO2 are industrial facilities that derive their products from raw materials like metallic ore, coal, and crude oil, or that burn coal or oil to produce process heat. Examples are petroleum refineries, cement manufacturing, and metal processing facilities. In addition, locomotives, large ships, and some non-road diesel equipment currently burn high sulfur fuel and release SO2 emissions to the air in large quantities.
Health and environmental impacts of SO2. SO2 causes a variety of health and environmental impacts because of the way it reacts with other substances in the air. Particularly sensitive groups include people with asthma who are active outdoors and children, the elderly, and people with heart or lung disease. Peak levels of SO2 in the air can cause temporary breathing difficulty for people with asthma who are active outdoors. Longer-term exposures to high levels of SO2 gas and particles cause respiratory illness and aggravate existing heart disease. SO2 reacts with other chemicals in the air to form tiny sulfate particles. When these are breathed, they gather in the lungs and are associated with increased respiratory symptoms and disease, difficulty in breathing, and premature death.
Visibility impairment. Haze occurs when light is scattered or absorbed by particles and gases in the air. Sulfate particles are the major cause of reduced visibility in many parts of the U.S., including our national parks
Acid rain. SO2 and nitrogen oxides react with other substances in the air to form acids, which fall to earth as rain, fog, snow, or dry particles. Some may be carried by the wind for hundreds of miles. Acid rain damages forests and crops, changes the makeup of soil, and makes lakes and streams acidic and unsuitable for fish. Continued exposure over long time changes the natural variety of plants and animals in an ecosystem. SO2 accelerates the decay of building materials and paints, including irreplaceable monuments, statues, and sculptures that are part of our nation's cultural heritage.
Chapter I
Difference between summer and winter distribution of pollutants in Budapest
The results from comparing the average concentrations of SO2 measured at different stations in winter and summer seasons show that winter concentrations exceed the summer values from 7% at the Kostolanyi measuring station, to 52% – at the Csepel measuring station. The highest concentration of SO2 in the winter season 2001 was observed at the Kobanya measuring station – 34 m/m3 fig fill in the common report (see Annex slide 8).
The average dust concentrations per station in winter period exceeded the summer values from 3% – at the Kostolanyi measuring station to 35% – at the Kobanya measuring station. The highest concentration of dust in winter 2001 was observed at the Baross measuring station – 63 m/m3 (see Annex slide 9).
The results from comparing the average daily values of SO2 in Budapest for the same period show that the concentrations in the summer season varied between 10 and 30 m/m3 and between 20 and 51 m/m3 in the winter season (see Annex slide 10). The results from comparing the average daily values of dust in Budapest show that most of the concentrations in the summer season are between 20 and 60 m/m3 and between 0 and 121 m/m3 in the winter season (see annex slide 11). According to the Hungarian regulations, the threshold value for 24 hours average concentration is 150 m/m3 for SO2, and 100 m/m3 for dust. Four of the measured dust concentrations exceed the limits of the Hungarian legislation.
One of the possible reasons for such seasonal variation in the concentrations of SO2 and dust is the temperature inversion (Baumbach 1996). A cold layer of air is positioned in the atmosphere and creates a “lid”, which does not allow the air to circulate. The conditions within the layer are stable, which promote stagnation of pollutants. In the summer season, this “lid” is on a higher altitude than in the winter season (see Annex slide 12). (Baumbach 1996). Consequently, the concentration of pollutants in the summer season can circulate easier and “dissolve” on a wider area than during the winter-time.
During the summer, the average temperature is higher and the ground is heated. As a result of that thermal radiation, the air raises high in the atmosphere and the concentrations “dissolve” (Baumbach 1996). In the winter season the temperatures are much lower and the ground can not release its heat.
Chapter II
Which parts of the city suffer the worst levels of pollution in winter time and why
To show which area of Budapest is more polluted two approaches are going to be used.
First approach is to compare SO2 values from “Allami Nepegeszsegugyi es Tisztiorvosi Szolgalat Budapest Fovarosi Intezete“ (ANTSBFI). Compared values are D24 av., D24 Max and D30 Max for every winter month. Data were ranged and a place with highest value got 8 points and with lowest value got 1 point, after doing this with all 3 groups of data ranging points are summed and sum is presented in the last row of table 1.
Table 1. Ranging of SO2 indices by D24 av., D24 Max and D30 Max value
name/place / D24 av. / D24 Max. / D30 Max / sumcsepel / 7 / 8 / 7 / 22
ilosvaj / 6 / 7 / 8 / 21
kobanja / 8 / 6 / 6 / 20
erzsebet / 5 / 5 / 5 / 15
kosztolanyi / 4 / 4 / 3 / 11
baross / 3 / 3 / 4 / 10
szena / 2 / 2 / 1 / 5
laborc / 1 / 1 / 2 / 4
According to this we can say that more polluted areas are Csepel, Ilosvaj and Kobanya and the less polluted area is Szena and Laborc. In graphical presentation we can see that we can group measuring places in 3 groups. Csepel, Ilosvaj and Kobanya like most polluted (22-20 points), Szena and Laborc (5-4 points) and Erzsebet, Kosztolanyi and Baross (15-10 points) (see Annex slide 15).
Second approach is data distribution. All measured SO2 values (D24 av., D24 Max. and D30 Max) from ANTSBFI tables for winter months are ranged in eight groups. According to presence in interval (Table 2) and points (Table 3) we got results which are presented in Table 4. Results in table 4 are sum of presence multiplied with point numbers.
Table 2. Distribution of SO2 by D24 av.
range/name / laborc / szena / csepel / baross / kosztolanyi / erzsebet / kobanja / ilosvaj10-17 / 10 / 26 / 2 / 46 / 8 / 6 / 0 / 0
18-25 / 14 / 27 / 8 / 7 / 43 / 28 / 25 / 30
26-33 / 32 / 31 / 20 / 4 / 54 / 25 / 39 / 28
34-41 / 25 / 4 / 40 / 5 / 4 / 33 / 14 / 9
42-49 / 2 / 1 / 13 / 2 / 1 / 4 / 5 / 2
50-57 / 3 / 0 / 1 / 1 / 0 / 0 / 3 / 1
58-65 / 0 / 0 / 0 / 1 / 0 / 2 / 2 / 0
66-74 / 0 / 0 / 0 / 0 / 0 / 0 / 0 / 2
If we give significance to every interval according to this table.
Gradation of stations by SO2 distribution (sum numbpoint)
1
Winter-time pollution and winter smog problems in Budapest in 2001
Table 3
range / point10-17 / 1
18-25 / 2
26-33 / 3
34-41 / 4
42-49 / 5
50-57 / 6
58-65 / 7
66-74 / 8
Table 4
name / pointsilosvaj / 365
csepel / 319
kobanja / 280
laborc / 276
erzsebet / 270
kosztolanyi / 225
szena / 204
baross / 115
1
Winter-time pollution and winter smog problems in Budapest in 2001
Now we can split areas in 2 groups more polluted leaded with Ilosvaj, (Csepel, Kobanya, Laborc and Erzsebet) and less (Kosztolanyi, Szena and Baross) where Baross is in the best position.
If we change the way that we group significant (Table 5) because the distribution then again we got very similar results.
1
Winter-time pollution and winter smog problems in Budapest in 2001
Table 5
range / point10-17 / 1
18-25 / 1
26-33 / 2
34-41 / 2
42-49 / 3
50-57 / 3
58-65 / 4
66-74 / 4
Table 6
points / name223 / ilosvaj
178 / csepel
163 / kobanja
161 / laborc
154 / erzsebet
135 / kosztolanyi
132 / szena
84 / baross
1
Winter-time pollution and winter smog problems in Budapest in 2001
If we compare Table 4 and table 6 than even with different grouping we have same position of measuring places. More polluted Ilosvaj, Csepel, Kobanya, Laborc and Erzsebet and less polluted Kosztolanyi, Szena and Baross. This distribution can be seen in Table 7.
Table 7. Gradation of stations by SO2 indexes
name / points / points / nameilosvaj / 365 / 223 / ilosvaj
csepel / 319 / 178 / csepel
kobanja / 280 / 163 / kobanja
laborc / 276 / 161 / laborc
erzsebet / 270 / 154 / erzsebet
kosztolanyi / 225 / 135 / kosztolanyi
szena / 204 / 132 / szena
baross / 115 / 84 / baross
For some days do not exist data to see what kind of impact has it on the measuring places ranging points from table are divided by the number of days for which we have significant data.
Table 8. Coefficients
name / points 1 / points 2 / name / koef 1 / koef 2 / daysilosvaj / 365 / 223 / ilosvaj / 3.924731 / 2.397849 / 93
csepel / 319 / 178 / csepel / 3.666667 / 2.045977 / 87
kobanja / 280 / 163 / kobanja / 3.181818 / 1.852273 / 88
laborc / 276 / 161 / laborc / 3.032967 / 1.769231 / 91
erzsebet / 270 / 154 / erzsebet / 3 / 1.711111 / 90
kosztolanyi / 225 / 135 / kosztolanyi / 2.419355 / 1.451613 / 93
szena / 204 / 132 / szena / 2.193548 / 1.419355 / 93
baross / 115 / 84 / baross / 1.825397 / 1.333333 / 63
In table 8 we can see that koef 1 which is equal to points 1/days have same ranging like when we ranged by points and that koef 2 which is equal to points 2/days have same ranging like when we ranged by points 2. Therefore, we can say that presented data significant.
According to this, we can say that most polluted areas are Ilosvaj, Csepel, Kobanya, Laborc and Erzsebet. The main reason for this is wind direction and power plant distribution.
Chapter III
Spatial distribution of SO2 and dust concentrations in Budapest
It is well known that air pollution and its consequences are considered as one of the major environmental threats for human beings and ecosystems (WHO 2000).
The objective of this paper was to analyze the spatial distribution of the major air pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide (SO2) and particulate matter (dust) over the territory of Budapest with a special emphasis on winter period of the year 2001.
Our results may suggest that air pollution (SO2 and dust) in Budapest in winter tends to occur in more evident and severe forms than in summer. Residents of Csepel, Baross, Kobanya, and Ilosvay areas are especially vulnerable to pollution. Particulate matter concentration levels are high in winter, with some episodes of severe air pollution. Transportation, power plants and industries appear to be the major pollution sources.
Budapest is the largest urban territory of the Hungarian Republic with large number of transport, industries, and households. Therefore, the risk of air pollution here is supposedly high. About 600,000 tons of air pollutants are emitted in Budapest annually, nearly three-quarters of which are contributed by motor vehicles (MoE 2001).
It is recognized that both natural and anthropogenic factors can affect the distribution of air pollutants. These factors include, but are not limited to, the intensity and type of sources of anthropogenic emissions, meteorological conditions and local topography.
In view of the fact that a hilly landscape with few industries occurs in the west (Buda), and a flat urban area with many industrial factories dominates lower elevations in the east (Pest), the city is highly susceptible to temperature inversions and is sometimes covered in a blanket of smog. In winter, under favorable meteorological conditions, sulfurous smog can be observed in the Pest side (Horvath 2001). The presence of particulate matter appears to aggravate the impact of SO2 pollution (EPA 1994).
The Hungarian regulations set the following border values to protect human health against the harmful effects of sulfur dioxide:
- Daily exposure: < 150 µg/m3 (D24)
- Short period exposure: < 250 µg/m3 30 minutes (D30)
The significant harm level, at which serious and widespread health effects occur to the general population, is 1,000 µg/m3 of SO2 (EPA 1994).
The Hungarian air quality standards for particulate matter to protect public health with an adequate margin of safety are:
- Daily exposure: < 100 µg/m3 (D24)
- Short period exposure: < 200 µg/m3 30 minutes (D30)
The significant harm level, at which serious and widespread health effects occur to the general population, is 600 µg/m3 of particulate matter (EPA 1994).
Observational data for SO2 and particulate matter were taken from the network of NTSZ monitoring stations and analyzed to get an overall picture of air pollution distribution. Figure 1 shows the location of monitoring stations and potential pollution sources in Budapest (see the Annex). The list of stations and short description of their surroundings is given below:
1 - Laborc (Residential area with one-storeyed buildings)
2 -Szena (High traffic area in Buda)
3 - Csepel (Production area)
4 - Baross (High traffic area in Pest)
5 - Kosztolanyi (Small production area)
6 - Erzsebet (Central bus station in the high-traffic area)
7 - Kobanya (Residential area with multi-storeyed buildings)
8 – Ilosvay(Residential area with intense traffic and complex buildings)
It should be mentioned that several other harmful substances, such as tropospheric ozone, NOx, carbohydrates, and CO contribute to the local air pollution effect. Therefore, it is important to take into consideration the generalized picture of air pollution. The most severe air pollution is observed in the Budapest downtown with some extension of strong air pollution to the major industrial zones and high-traffic areas (see the Annex) (Pomratcz et al. 2002). The western part of the city does not suffer from air pollution as much as the south-eastern part mainly because of its favorable geographical position, larger green areas, and lower concentration of pollution sources.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) pollution. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is formed when fuel containing sulfur (mainly coal and oil) is burned. In the cold spell, increased SO2 emissions and SO2 concentrations in the atmospheric air can be observed in Budapest mainly due to intense operation of heat power plants and coal burning in residential sector.
It is known that high concentrations of sulfur dioxide may cause breathing difficulties to people exposed to it. People suffering from asthma and chronic lung disease may be especially susceptible to the adverse effects of sulfur dioxide (EPA 1994). Therefore, it is important to trace SO2 concentrations and take appropriate mitigation measures.
The analysis of spatial and temporal distribution of SO2 in Budapest shows a general tendency towards less intensive air pollution in summertime and more intensive in wintertime. Maximum air pollution in the summer 2001 was registered in the Budapest downtown (see Annex slide 23); in contrast, in the winter 2001, the Pest residential area (left bank of the Danube River) was mostly susceptible to high SO2 concentrations (see Annex slide 24).
In winter, the average concentrations of SO2 were as much as 1.5 times higher than in summer. Therefore, our research was focused on the winter season. The most polluted zones were high-traffic areas in the Pest (Szena, Baross) and the Kobanya residential area. The Buda hills and other territories located in the west were less polluted. It is likely that stationary burning of fossil fuels was the major contributor to SO2 pollution.
In the winter 2001, the episodes of maximum D24 (24 hours) and D30 (30 minutes) sulfur dioxide pollution mainly occurred in the urban districts around stations # 3, #7 and #8 (Csepel, Kobanya, and Ilosvay, respectively) located in the south-east of Budapest (see the Annex). These are urban regions with high concentration of motor vehicles, power plants, industries and households. However, no dangerous levels of SO2 concentration were reported during the winter 2001 (except one case in December 2001 for station # 8).
Particulate matter (dust) pollution. Particulate matter is solid matter or liquid droplets from smoke, dust, or condensing vapors that can be suspended in the air for long periods of time. Particulate matter mainly results from fuel combustion. The carbon-based particles emitted from incomplete burning of diesel fuel in buses (e.g. Ikarus), trucks and cars are of particular concern.
The effects of particulate matter on human health include breathing and respiratory symptoms, aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiovascular disease, and damage to lung tissue. Groups that appear to be most sensitive to the effects of particulate matter pollution include individuals with chronic lung or cardiovascular disease, asthmatics, elderly people, and children (EPA 1994).
People living in areas with high particulate matter and SO2 levels have a higher incidence of respiratory illnesses and symptoms than people living in areas without such a synergistic combination of pollutants (EPA 1994).
Chapter IV
Analysis of the air pollution levels for the weekends and holidays and for the whole winter period 2001.
Urban air pollution mainly relies on the activity of city dwellers. Lowering of this activity therefore assumes lowering of the levels of pollution. For the cities two main factors of air pollution are transport and industry. If there are no special weather conditions, we can expect a decrease in air pollution on weekends and holidays when there is a decrease in human activity.
In our case to check this hypothesis, we can use a method of comparing average level of pollution for the winter period 2001 and average level of pollution on weekends and holidays for the same period. To get a visual picture and to make it more comprehensive to analyze data we can create graphs drawing levels of pollution for each month. The trends can show if there are any changes in levels of pollution on weekdays and holidays.
Because we have data only for year 2001, we are assuming winter period as January, February and December 2001. The analysis is provided for all stations (see Annex, slides 34-39).