Some Key Environmental Issues in South Africa
This essay identifies some key environmental issues in South Africa. It is unlikely to be comprehensive because the importance of various issues depends on the individual’s perspective e.g. Zackie Achmatof the Treatment Action Campaign is likely to consider AIDS more important than biodiversity loss. In my opinion, many of the environmental issues in this essay are at least partially the result of bad governance and lack of political will.
Many of these issues are interrelated with each other e.g. mining causing water pollution.[1] I have grouped the selected environmental issues into biophysical and socioeconomic categories though many of the issues overlap.
Biophysical Issues
In many cases, the reason for biophysical environmental issues is that the resources are public goods and thus undervalued in the economy.[2]
Water
South Africa is water stressed (i.e. there are 1000—1699 m3 of water per person per year) and is predicted to be short of water by 2050.[3] In the report, South Africa: Initial National Communication under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, itis predicted that South Africa will use most of its freshwater resources in the next few decades without considering the impacts of climate change.[4] This means that water resources need to be carefully managed. The excessive use (at rates greater than the recharge rate) of groundwater could reduce the availability of surface water.[5]
Water use by agriculture, households and industry results in pollution which increases the costs of ensuring clean and disease-free water.[3] Pollution reaches the oceans through pipes (e.g. sewage outfalls and storm water outlets) and waterways and contributes to biodiversity loss and other coastal problems.[5]
Biodiversity
Habitat destruction and fragmentation are the biggest threat to South Africa’s biodiversity. Invasive alien species are the second biggest threat to South Africa’s biodiversity.[5]
My experience of municipal workers in Penhill, Eersterivier is that if it is natural, it must be destroyed. During my secondary education, I prevented the brush cutting of a small patch of indigenous vegetation on the public open space next to my home. The municipal worker pointed to a Protea scolymocephala (planted) and more-or-less said “What about that?” A more recent example is arriving home from Stellenbosch to find the entire open space diagonally across from my home had been mowed on the excuse that it was a fire hazard. A fire break would have been quite adequate especially since roads provide fire breaks on three sides and on the side without a road there is a drainage ditch a few metres from the household boundaries. The public open space has not yet fully recovered from that mowing.
Declining Fisheries
There are two aspects to the issue of declining fisheries: firstly, the decline in fish stocks and hence fishing quotas and secondly the allocation of fishing quotas.[6,7,8]
Non-renewable resources
Mining is not sustainable as the resources are depleted by the process Goodstein[2]contends that this is not the case if we somehow use created capital to offset reductions in natural capital. The evidence of Eskom’s budget for renewable electricity generation[9] suggests that such an offset is unlikely in South Africa.
Mining causes acidification in nearby water sources.[1]
Mining also prevents agriculture or urban development and in turn, urban development may prevent mining.[5]
Air pollution
South Africa generates 50% of the air pollution on the African continent. Vehicular transport and electricity generation are two major contributors to air pollution in South Africa.[5]
Global Warming
The potential impacts of global warming are likely to exacerbate existing issues (e.g. water and biodiversity) and need to be considered in planning for the future.[5, 10, 11] The Stern Report indicates that, without action, global warming will eventually harm the economy.[12]
Socioeconomic Issues
Education
South Africa claims to follow an outcomes-based education system at the level of primary and secondary education but this is not visible in the schools – even those with adequate resources[13](pers. comm. R.R. Raitt). In the poorer areas, schools may lack: infrastructure and/or the infrastructure may be in poor repair; resources and competent teachers. For such schools, overcrowding in the classroom (i.e. too large classes) is frequent and teacher absenteeism may be a problem.[14, 15] The fact that these problems exist indicates unequal allocation of resources by the government.
At the tertiary education level, there are problems with increasing numbers of students admitted to university that are inadequately prepared for tertiary education – indicating deficiencies in secondary education.[16] In South Africa, English is a frequent medium for tertiary instruction. Many students are not first language English speakers and do not have sufficient skill in English to be able to understand the content they are taught. A final problem in tertiary education is that many lecturers lack teaching experience and/or knowledge of learning theories. This means that they are unable to effectively convey knowledge and skills to the students.[17]
AIDS and Population Growth
AIDS (Acquired Imunodeficiency Syndrome) occurrence was estimated at 13% in 2001 and projected to grow. AIDS affects the economically active 25—45 years-old age bracket most which results in the number of orphans and aged people requiring government assistance increasing. Population growth will be drastically reduced.[18] The U.S. Census Bureau[19] estimates South Africa’s population at July 2007 as 43.998 billion but their projection for 2050 is only 33.003 billion.
The unskilled have the highest incidence of AIDS.[20] The impacts of AIDS include a decline in savings, increased medical expenditure, decreased productivity and changes in the structure e.g. a movement away from sectors requiring unskilled labour. On a macroeconomic level, AIDS has a negative impact on GDP and does not reduce unemployment in the unskilled/semi-skilled sector.[18]
Electricity
There are two aspects regarding the electricity supply in South Africa at present. The first is generation capacity and the second is the type of electricity generation.
Personal experience of some of the unplanned power outages of the last two years (at least) suggests that electricity supply in South Africa is inadequate. My personal experience is that the quality of Eskom’s service has declined in the last few years. Eskom plans to bring three coal-fired power stations back into service to increase its capacity.[21] It is also in the process of building more power stations: one new coal-fired station has been approved, another is awaiting approval, a pebble bed nuclear reactor is planned near Koeberg, two peak time gas turbines and a peak time pump storage station are planned.[5, 22]
The principle form of electricity generation used by Eskom is coal (ten working power stations).[21] This form of electricity generation contributes to the air pollution issues in this country. Eskom also has Koeberg Nuclear Power Station, six hydroelectric power stations, two gas turbines and two pumped storage stations.[21] Koeberg generates nuclear waste to add to the country’s waste management problems and the gas turbines contribute to air pollution. The Palmiet Pumped Storage Station is situated in the KoegelbergMountains and destroyed a relatively pristine natural environment. In my opinion, it should never have been allowed to be built.
It is noticeable that none of Eskom’s base load power stations are using renewable energy sources.[21] Eskom does have an experimental wind generation scheme[23] but it has not budgeted for much expansion of its renewable electricity generation capacity (R4.5 million vs R6 million for nuclear energy).[9]
Transport
There are two aspects to the issue of transport: firstly, the form of it takes and secondly, the placement and state of the infrastructure required for transport (e.g. roads and railways).
The number of private vehicles in South Africa is growing. This is causing congestion problems and contributing a large portion of the country’s carbon emissions.[5] Widening the roads will not improve the congestion in the medium or long term.[5, 24] The country’s public transport is inefficient, subsidised and unsafe. The capacity of all forms of public transport during off-peak hours is too great[5] and during peak hours (at least for rail transport), too small (pers. obs. 2006)
The road network is deteriorating. Bypass roads with accompanying service stations lead to a decrease in the economic activity of small towns.[5]
Waste management
The main factors involved in generating increasing amounts of waste are more production of goods, economic growth and increasing population.[5]
Inadequate waste management contributes to pollution.[3, 5] Sewage systems in various provinces are failingresulting in water pollution and potentiallycausing health problems. The money allocated for repairs is inadequate.[5]
Handling wastes from informal settlements is a particular problem owing to the lack of infrastructure and possibly the location of the settlement (e.g. avoiding river pollution with an informal settlement on its banks is difficult). Weekly (at least) rubbish collection is available to 55% of South Africans.[5]
Solid waste may be incinerated or sent to landfill sites. Landfills are classified according to the type of waste (general or hazardous), their size and the chance that significant amounts of leaching will occur. The location of new landfill sites is difficult.[5]
Tourism
Tourism affects the environment both culturally and physically. The negative impacts are the result of accommodation and infrastructure development and the tourists themselves.[25] Tourism may be negatively affected by the appearance and/or location of development.[5]
The International Ecotourism Society has defined ecotourism as travel to natural areas that is responsible and contributes to the conservation of the area and the well-being of the local communities.[25] Miller[26] provides useful guidelines for assessing the sustainability of offered nature-based tourism packages. Blangy and Mehta[25] indicate that the Phinda Private Game Reserve near St. Lucia in South Africa fulfils the requirements for classification as an ecotourism operation.
Unemployment
Unemployment was estimated at 25.5% in 2006.[27] The highest unemployment is in the unskilled/semi-skilled sector (more than 50% in 1999) while the skilled sector had more than 20% unemployment in 1999. Total available employment (formal and informal sectors) in the unskilled and semi-skilled sector had declined to 92% of the 1970 level in 1999.[18] Arndt and Lewis[18] show real income increases in 1999 relative to 1970. Highly skilled people were receiving about 90% of the 1970 level of income, skilled workers’ income was at 110% of the 1970 level and unskilled/semiskilled workers’ income had increased 250% relative to the 1970 level. They concluded that unskilled and semi-skilled workers have priced themselves out of the market.[18] Unemployment due to the wages being above the market value may be caused by government (by instituting laws pertaining to minimum wages and/or firing of employees) and/or union action.[28] I think that in South Africa both of these factors play a role (as partially demonstrated by the strikes this year).
Unemployment leads to poverty and increases crime and suicide. It allows employers to pay low wages and minimal benefits (hence the need for minimum wage laws). The cost of losing employment increases because the chances of finding other employment are low.[28]
Poverty
Poverty for the purposes of this essay refers to a combination of material need and endless lack of wealth.[29] The two variations are not automatically synonymous.
Poverty measures may be absolute, e.g. those living on under $1 per day (purchasing power parity) or relative, e.g. measuring income inequality.[30] South Africa is estimated to have 34.1% of its population living less than $2 per day (purchasing power parity) and 10.7% of the population living on less than $1 per day.[31] The rate of income inequality in South Africa is among the highest in the world.[32] In 2000, it was estimated that 50% of South Africa’s population lived below the national poverty line.[31] In contrast, there are three billionaires in South Africa.[33]
The poor consider the following,amongst other factors,as characteristic of poverty: uncertain employment, restricted skills, physical restrictions, no security and abuse from the officialdom.[29]
Crime
Crime in South Africa is comparable to developing countries rather than developed countries. Carjacking, rape, assault and murder (especially the murder of farmers) are among the forms of crime known to be a problem in South Africa.[34]
A good summary of why crime is increasing in South AfricaisCharles Nqakula’s (the Minister of Safety and Security) notorious comment that those who grumble about crime in South Africa should stop whinging and emigrate (gist of comment found in Wikipedia Contributors[34]but also personally remembered from news broadcasts at the time).
Visible signs of the crime in South Africa are the proliferation of gated communities and private security companies.[34]
Conclusions
The impact of many of these issues could be drastically reduced by appropriate government action. Such action is, in many cases, unlikely for the foreseeable future. This is in part due to the anthropocentric and amoral nature of economics.[2]
References
1. Naicker K, Cukrowska E, McCarthy TS. 2003. Acid mine drainage arising from gold mining activity in Johannesburg, South Africa and environs. Environmental Pollution 122 (1): 29—40.
2. Goodstein ES. 2002. Economics and the Environment. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 545p. 0-471-39998-1 ISBN
3. Clarke R, King J. 2004. The Atlas of Water: Mapping the World’s Most Critical Resource. London: Earthscan. 127p. 1-84407-133-2 ISBN
4. Government of South Africa. 2000. South Africa: Initial National Communication under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Pretoria: South African National Government. 118 p. Available from:
5. CNdV africa. 2005. Western Cape Provincial Spatioal Development Framework: The Western Cape Province Today. Cape Town: CNdV africa for the Provincial Government of the Western Cape, Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning. 460p. Available from:
6. Ministry of Environmental Affairs & Tourism. Ministry of Environmental Affairs & Tourism: Call for Restraint – Fishing Quotas, 25 September 1996 [Internet]. Ministry of Environmental Affairs & Tourism, Department of Environmental Affairs & Tourism, Government of South Africa; Updated 2004 Jun. 22 [cited 2007 Oct. 9]. Available from:
7. Marine Resources Service. 2005. Review of the State of World Marine Fishery Resources. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 457. Available from:
8. Visser M. 2006. Welfare Implications of Peer Punishment in Unequal Societies. Working Papers in Economics no. 218: 1—7.
9. Gosling M. Eskom favours nuclear above renewable energy [Internet]. CapeTimes; Updated 2007 Jun. 08 [cited 2007 Oct 8]. Available from:
10. Erasmus BF; Van JaarsveldAS; Chown SL; Kshatriya M, Wessels KJ. 2002. Vulnerability of South African Animal taxa to Climate Change. Global Change Biology 8: 679—693. Available from:
11. Bomhard B, Richardson DM, Donaldson JS, Hughes GO, Midgley GF, Raimondo DC, Rebelo AG, Rouget M, Thuiller W. 2005. Potential impacts of future land use and climate change on the Red List status of the Proteaceae in the Cape Floristic Region, South Africa. Global Change Biology 11 (9): 1452—1468. Available from:
12. Stern N. Executive Summary Stern Review: The Economics of Climate Change [Internet]. Her Majesty’s Treasury, United Kingdom Government. First Issued 2006 [cited 2007 Oct. 8]. Previously available from: (I downloaded it last year)
13. Raitt R.R. 2005 An Investigation into the Challenges Facing Grade 8 Natural Science Teachers as They Implement Curriculum 2005 and Outcomes-Based Education. Bellville: University of the Western Cape. 187 p.
14. De Jager T, Ferreira JG. 2004. Factors Preventing the Development of Process Skills of BiologySecondary School Learners in South Africa. Educare 32 (182): 186—198.
15. Pretorius EJ, Machet MP. 2004. Literacy and Disadvantage: Learners Achievements in the Early Primary School Years. Africa Education Review 1 (1): 128—146.
16. Linkonyane N, Sanders M. 2000. Skills Perceived Necessary for Academic Success in the Biological Sciences at First-YearUniversity Level. In: Proceedings of the 8th Annual Meeting of the Southern African Association for Research in Mathematics and Science Education. University of Port Elizabeth; Port Elizabeth; SAARMSTE.pp. 259 –266.
17. Jacobs C. 2005. On being an Insider on the Outside: New Spaces for Integrating Academic Literacies. Teaching in Higher Education 10 (4): 475—487.
18. Arndt C, Lewis JD. 2001. The HIV/AIDS Pandemic in South Africa: Sectoral Impacts and Unemployment. Journal of International Development 13: 427—449.
19. U.S. Census Bureau. International Data Base [Internet]. United States Census Bureau, Population Division, InternationalProgramsCenter; Data Updated 2007 Jul. 16 [cited 2007 Oct. 5]. Available from:
20. Arndt C, Lewis JD. 2000. The Macro Implications of HIV/AIDS in South Africa: A Preliminary Assessment. South African Journal of Economics 58 (5): 380—392.
21. Eskom. b. Map of Power Stations [Internet]. Eskom Holdings Limited Reg No 2002/015527/06; Update unknown [cited 2007 Oct. 8]. Available from:
22. The Sunday Times. Meeting the Power Gap [Internet]. The Sunday Times; Updated 2007 Jun. 10 [cited 2007 Oct. 8] Available from:
23. Eskom. a. Klipheuwel Windfarm [Internet]. Eskom Holdings Limited Reg No 2002/015527/06; Update unknown [cited 2007 Oct. 8]. Available from:
24. Brown LR. 2001. Eco-economy: building an economy for the earth. London: Earthscan. 1-85383-826-8 ISBN
25. Blangy S, Mehta H. 2006. Ecotourism and Ecological Restoration. Journal for Nature Conservation 14: 233—236.
26. Miller GT. 2002. Living in the Environment. 12th ed. Belmont: Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning. 126 p.
27. Wikipedia contributors. Economy of South Africa [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; Updated 2007 Sept. 28, 15:38 UTC [cited 2007 Oct. 3]. Available from:
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29. Wikipedia Contributors. Poverty [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; Updated 2007 Oct. 4, 17:23 UTC [cited 2007 Oct. 5]. Available from:
30. Wikipedia Contributors. Measuring poverty [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; Updated 2007 Aug. 20, 01:33 UTC [cited 2007 Oct. 5]. Available from:
31. Wikipedia Contributors.List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; Updated 2007 Oct. 4, 18:14 UTC [cited 2007 Oct. 5]. Available from:
32. Wikipedia Contributors. South Africa [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; Updated 2007 Oct. 3, 10:22 UTC [cited 2007 Oct. 3]. Available from:
33. Wikipedia Contributors. List of countries by the number of billionaires [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; Updated 2007 Oct. 6, 18:34 UTC [cited 2007 Oct. 9]. Available from:
34. Wikipedia Contributors. Crime in South Africa [Internet]. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia; Updated 2007 Sept. 18, 13:20 UTC [cited 2007 Oct. 5]. Available