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TheTriptychof LiberalEducation
ErikaAnitaKiss
PrincetonUniversity
A LITTLEBEFOREDAYBREAK
“Socrates,areyouawakeorsleep?”Ourstorycommencesalittlebefore daybreak withthesoundofviolent knocking onSocrates’sdoorfollowed bythis petulantcry(Protagoras310b2).1AyoungAtheniannoblemanburstsintoSocrates’s chamber,notbeing abletocontainhisexcitementthathemight finally beableto receivetrueeducation fromthegenuine master.Theteacherhehasinmind, however, isnottheonewedo.Theyoungster reveals,whilefeelinghiswayto Socrates’sbedinthestilldarkroom,thatitisnotSocrates,butthe“beautiful stranger”(Protagoras309c1–10)Protagoraswhohasinspiredhisexcitement.This isthesecondvisitofthefamousforeignerInAthensencouragedmostprobablyby Pericles,ap atronofthesophistmovementofwhichProtagorasistheleadingfigure. SocratesclaimsthatProtagoras isthefirstwhoadmitstobeingasophist,a professional teacherofwisdom,andthefirstwhomakesteachingphilosophy an economicactivitybychargingtuitionfee.Protagorasismostcommonlyknownfor hishomomensuraargumentthatisparaphrasedas“manisthemeasureofallthings.” Socrateshimselfreferstohimas“thewisestmannowliving”(Protagoras309d1).
Socrates,however— despitehisrelativelyyoung ageat thetimeof our story
—isalreadysetonthepathofhischaracteristicphilosophicalcallingbythe divinationthatheisthewisestmannowliving.Itseemstomethatthewakeupcall Socratesreceivesatthearrivalofthesophistisacomicre-enactmentofthefamous Delphiccallingthatsetsofftheparticular—orasputintheSymposiumandinthe Gorgias:“strange,”“outrageous,”and“scandalous”—Socraticactivity(221dand
494d).TheDelphicwakeupcallforSocrateswasdeliveredbyhisoldfriend, Chaerephon,whoundertook thetriptoDelphiwiththesolepurposeofinquiring whether therewasanyone alivewiserthanSocrates. Thedivinemessage —also formulatedinthenegativeandcomparativestructure—saidtherewasnoonewiser thanSocrates(CD21a1–c3).WhenthisprophecyreachedSocrates,however,hehas alreadyabandonedtheideathatpositivewisdomispossibleatall.2Consequently, theonlymeaningfulinterpretationhecouldgivetothedivinemessagewasthathe iscomparativelythewisestbecauseheistheonlyonewhocanfullycomprehendthat heknowsnothing. Moreover,hecouldnotconceive ofhavingeventhisnegative wisdom asastaticstatebutratheradynamic strifethrough thenever-ceasing challengeofalife-longdialoguewithothers.Inanattempttoavoidcontradictingthe DelphicGod,Socratesinventstheonlystrategythatallowshimthefulfilmentofthe oracle. Hedecides thathiswayofpursuinghiscalling istochoose alifeof conversation inwhichthesuperiorityofhiswisdomcanunfoldwithoutthe professionofanywisdom.
Socrates,therefore,becomesafixtureofthemarketplacewhereheputshimself inthewayofanyonewhoprofessesknowledgeinordertorefutethem.TheDelphic
oraclethussetsSocratesinanagon(competition) mostofallwiththenew professionalgroupofteachersofhistime,thesophists.Socrates’speculiaror outrageousactivity(theSocraticeducation),therefore,cannotunfoldbyitself. Socraticeducationcomesintobeingrelativetothesophists’educationalactivity,as itisarticulatedthroughcompetition(agon)withthemandnotbyitself.Thespecific modeofphilosophicalcreativitythatexpressesitselfbyavoidingtheprofessionof knowledge—theSocraticelenchus—isconditioneduponanagonisticstructurein whichacharacter ofelenchus challenges anassertive character. Onlyinthe intellectual companyofanassertiveopponent orpupilcanSocratesmaintainthe consistencyofhisphilosophicalscepticismandarticulatethewisdomthathehasno wisdom.Itisthesophistmovement thatprovidesSocrateswiththefoiltoreveal himselfasthe wisestmanfromthe positionofthe underdog.
THEODDCOUPLE: THEUNDERDOG(EIRÔN)ANDTHEBRAGGART(ALAZÔN)
TheencounterbetweenSocratesandtheSophistimmortalizedbyPlatointhe dialoguenamedafterProtagorasisnotasimpleanecdote.Itisare-enactmentofthe birthofhigherlearninginformofaconceptualdrama—apoetic,philosophical,and genealogical projectatoneandthesametime.Thedramaticpersonaeofthis philosophicalallegorypossessacertainiconicity,amixtureofconcretehistoricity andabstractuniversalitymeldedbyPlato’spoeticart.Thehistoricityofthefigures ofSocratesandProtagorasisthekindthatisraisedthroughbeingerased.The questionthen—“Whoareyoutalkingabout,Socratesora‘Socrates’inPlato?”3— whichdogsourstep,barkingatus,forcingustoturnandfaceitinself-defence(to paraphrase GregoryVlastos)thenhastobeanswered asfollows.Wearetalking abouta“Socrates”inPlato,a“Protagoras”inPlato,anda“Plato”inPlato.Yet,more importantly,thematterofourpresentdiscussionishowthedynamicconstellation ofideasthatweseeashighereducationisbornfromtheinteractionofthesethree.
Ifweareirked—asVlastosis—bythedogging question ofthePlatonic manipulationofSocrates,weshouldbeevenmoreirkedbyPlato’ssuccessof writingthesophistsoutofthehistoryofphilosophyforcenturies.PitchingSocrates asanunderdogagainstProtagoras, whoisstagedastheprofessional starinthe Platonictext,isadramaturgicalfigure thatservestotrigger theironic reversal of fortuneinwhichunderdogandstarchangerolesinthelong(historical)haul.Plato makesSocratesnarratetheentiredialoguenamedafterProtagoras. Thiswaythe comicstagingofSocratesasthephilosophicalunderdog,thereluctantteacher,the anti-professor, togetherwiththefarce-likemisrecognition ofhimbythestudent lookingforthetruemaster,istransformedfromthecrudestformofcomicgaginto the philosophicalironyofSocraticself-presentation.Incontrastwiththe Socratic figureofself-deprecation,thefigureofProtagorasisstagedastheboaster.He professesknowledge,claimsthisknowledgetobethebestinstrumentforachieving thegoodlifeinthepolis,andassertshimselftobeitsbestteacher.Accordingly,he promisestheprofessional transference ofhisknowledge tohispupil,which transactionhewillbepaidforinthevaluethestudentswearstothegodshereceived.
Thusthedramaticsituationissetupfromthestartwiththeironicdoublingof theteacherfigureaccordingtotheoldcomictraditionofjuxtaposingtheunderdog
(eirôn)andtheboaster(alazôn).Thepupilsearchingfortrueeducationendsup listeningtoboth.Whatmakesuphiseducationis,infact,thecompetitiveinteraction (agon)betweenSocratesandthesophist.Theargumentabouthighereducationthat isunfoldinginfrontofthestudentisthejointworkoftheanti-teacher andthe professionalteachersomuchsothatthetwoexchangepositionsandunwittinglyend upwitheachother’soriginalargument.Theinitialargumentative positionof Socrates inthedialogue isthatwhatwouldbeworthteaching (virtue) isnot teachable.Protagoras,ontheotherhand,claimsthathepossessestheprofessional know-howofimprovingmenmorallyyetisuncomfortablewiththethesisthat followsfromhisconviction, namelythatvirtueisknowledge. Attheendofthe dialogueSocratesenvisionswhataneutralbystanderwouldsayatthespectacleof theirabsurdinteraction.
Whatanabsurdpairyouare,SocratesandProtagoras.Oneofyou,havingsaidatthe beginningthatvirtueis notteachable,nowis bent uponcontradictinghimselfbytryingto demonstratethateverythingisknowledge—justice,temperance,andcouragealike— whichis thebestwayto provethatvirtueis teachable.Ifvirtueweresomethingotherthan knowledge,asProtagorastriedtoprove,obviouslyitcouldnotbetaught.Butifitturnsout tobe,asasinglewhole,knowledge—whichiswhatyouareurging,Socrates—thenitwill bemostsurprisingifitcannotbetaught.Protagoras,ontheotherhand,whoatthebeginning supposedittobeteachable,nowonthecontraryseemstobebentonshowingthatitisalmost anything ratherthanknowledge, andthiswouldmakeitleastlikelytobeteachable. (Protagoras 361a5–c3)
Attheendofthedialoguebetweenourabsurdpair, therefore,weareleftwith an unsolvedandinsolvabledilemmathatvirtueisbothteachableandnotteachableor, inotherwords,thatteachingisbothaprofessionalactivity(techne)andanactivity nevertobeprofessionalized.Moraleducationiscaughtupbetweensophistcraft (techne)andSocraticcharisma.
THEAPORIAOFHIGHERLEARNING
Theaporiaofteachingcorrespondstoanaporiaoflearning,asSocratesisquick tobringittotheyoungAthenian’sattention.Whatgivesawaythecrisisofthenew highereducationfromthepointofviewofthelearneristheblushthatSocratesteases outoftheeageryouthastheywalkaroundinthecourtyardwaitingfordaybreakand amoreappropriatetimeto visitProtagoras.
Andifyoufacedthefurtherquestion,Whatdoyouyourselfhopetobecomebyyour associationwith Protagoras?
Heblushedatthis—therewasalreadyastreakofdaylighttobetrayhim—andreplied,If thisis liketheother cases,Imust say“tobecomea sophist.”
Butwouldn’tamanlikeyoubeashamed,saidI,tofaceyourfellowcountrymenasaSophist? IfIamto speakmyrealmind,Icertainlyshould.(Protagoras 311e7–312a7)
Theyoungnoblemancannotwaittobecomeastudentofthesophists,yetheis
blushingatthethoughtoflearninginordertobecomeaprofessional; heistorn betweenprofessionalism anditsopposite:nobility.Aristocraticandbourgeois idealsare crashingin his blush.
Ifitissoshamefulforanoblemantoseektheneweducation,thenwhatisthe forcethat,overridingshame,cancompelHippocrates,theyoungnobleman,to
becomeastudentofasophist?Isnoblelearningpossibleastheresultofprofessional teachingif(asAristotleclaims)learningandteachingarebuttwosidesofthesame coin?On theotherhand,whatwould it meanfor teachingtobenoble,as opposed toprofessionalactivity?WouldthatbeSocraticeducation?Socratesisreadytogive achanceforthenewlearningbyofferingadefinition,whichletsthelearner(yetnot the teacher)offthe hookofprofessionalism.
PerhapsthenthisisnotthekindofinstructionyouexpecttogetfromProtagoras,butrather thekindyougotfromtheschoolmasterswhotaughtyoulettersandmusicandgymnastics. Youdidn’tlearntheseforprofessionalpurposes,tobecomeapractitioner,butinthewayof liberaleducation,asa laymananda gentlemanshould.(Protagoras 312a8–b4).
This,Itakeit,isthefirstdocumentationoftheideaofhighereducation.Socrates’s definitionfortheneweducationis:generallearningextendedintoadulthood.Higher educationisunderstoodtobethekindofeducationbeyondprimaryandsecondary schooling thatisnotapreparation foravocationorforatrade,namely,liberal learning.Theabsolutenoveltyoftheideaoftheextendedliberaleducation,apaideiaforthepolisconcerningstrictlynon-professionalpurposes,isobviousfromboththe comicalexcitementofthe Athenianyouthand Socrates’streatmentofitassome- thing thathasnotyetbeen examinedandproperlyunderstoodbecauseofitsvery freshoccurrence.4
LIBERALITYANDHIGHERLEARNING
TheyoungmanandSocratesaswellasProtagoras —afterthedesired introductiontakesplace— allagreethatthenewpaideiahas tobeenkuklios,that is,general.Thefulcrumofthedefinitionofthenewhigherlearningseemstobefor theancients, asitremainstobeforthemoderns, theprinciple ofgenerality. The enkukliospaideiacontinuesitslifeinRomanantiquityunderthenameofartesliberales(freedisciplines),whichin turn servesasthe Latinoriginofthe English terms“liberalarts”and“liberaleducation.”Theappearanceofthenotionoffreedom orliberalityconnectedwiththe principleofgeneralitycouldseemincongruousat first but theconfusioncan beeasilycleared.Both generalityand liberalitycan be broughtunderthesemantichorizonoftheword“enkuklios”intheexpression “enkukliospaideia.”Mostcommonly“enkuklios”isunderstoodasreferringtothe scopeoflearning.ThisinterpretationissupportedbyProtagoras’sdescriptionofthe typicalstudentsofthesophistenkukliospaideiaas“youngmen,whohavedeliber- atelyturnedtheirbacksonspecialization”(Protagoras 318e1).Inthiscontext, enkukliosrefersto“broadlearning”asopposedtospecializedstudies.Themodern conceptofliberaleducationadherestothissemanticdimensionof“enkuklios” indicatinganidealofgeneralculturalliteracyandcomprehensive, encyclopedic studiesacrossseveraldisciplines.
Notwithstandingthislong-livedinterpretationoftheexpression,anotherlook attheSocraticdefinitionof thenewpaideia(thistimeintheLoebedition)5brings anothermeaningofittothesurface—ameaningthatispossiblyclosertothecorrect etymologicalrootof“enkuklios.”Socrates’semphasisbecomesclearerinthis translation:thenoveltyofhigher educationliesnotinitsscope, thatis,notinthe “what”butinthe“how”oflearning.Hearguesthatthesamerangeofsubjectscan
betaken“notinthetechnicalway,withaviewofbecomingaprofessional
[demiourgos],butforeducation’ssake[epipaideia],asbefitsaprivategentleman.”6
Inthisunderstandingofpaideia,theothermeaningofenkukliosisimplied:notthe qualityofmovingacrossanencyclopedicrangeofsubjects,butratherthequalityof freemovementamongthecitizensofthepolis.Infact,thisisthemeaningthatthe Latinexpression‘artesliberales’follows:disciplinessuitableforthosewhoarefree fromthecareofaprofession.Ifwethustakethemeaningof“liberal”inthesense ofbeinganti-professionalitwillincludeboththefreedomfromtheburthenof professionalpurposeandthenon-specialized,generalnatureofstudies.Oncewe agreed,however,thatpurposelessnessisthecentralandunavoidableelementofthe definitionofhigher education,onehastofacethefacthowmuch thiscontradicts commonsense.
Socrates’sjuxtapositionofthetwowaysoflearning—onewiththepurposeof makingalivingasaprofessional,theothernotasameansbutasanendinitself— isadecisivemomentinthehistoryofideas.Itopensquestionsthathaveneverceased toperplex.Forinstance,theimpliedhierarchyhintingatthesuperiorityofeducation foreducation’ssakeoverinstrumentallearningimmediatelystrikesoneasim- menselyproblematicmorallyandpolitically.Whoispayingfortheleisureof learningfor learning’ssake?On onehand,theuniversityas aconceptcanonlybe definedmeaningfullyinanoppositionwithinstrumentallearning,ontheother,this factleavesitvulnerable todemands thattheuniversity justifyitssocialand economicutility.Theambivalentpositionofuniversityeducationatalltimesstems fromitsoriginalSocraticjuxtapositionwiththeprinciplesofutility,purposefulness, orevenapplication.HigherlearningasdefinedbySocratesistheextensionofleisure (skholê)throughout theentirelifeofadultcitizens.Thismeansthattheadultcitizens ofAthensaretoshunutilityfornobility;thattheyarenottocaremoreforfinancial andsocialadvancementthanfortheirsoul.HowcouldSocrates,thecommoner,the father,the headofa household,havesuchexpectations?
Hiseducationalexpectationseemsoutrageousonlyifviewedinitselflikethe posture ofapersonpressingagainstawallthatisnotvisible. Socratic education, indeed,onlymakesenseifonealsoregardswhatitpressesagainst,whatitbalances out:thesophistunderstanding ofliberaleducationasanewtechnologybywith socialandfinancialsuccessisguaranteed. Highereducation, therefore,istobe conceptualizedasacoincidenceofopposingphilosophicalattitudes:oftheSocratic elenchus(thatresistsassertion,professionalism, positivism)andthesophistic assertiveprofessionalism.Both ofthese modes arenecessaryforthedynamicsof highereducation andtheycannotexistwithouteachother.Ontheonehand,the Socraticelenchushasnocontenttorefutewithouttheassertiveprofessionalismof theSophists;ontheother,thedriveofthesophisticprofessionalself-seekingisblind withoutthereflectiveworkofSocraticelenchus.Incontemporaryterms,themore developedthebureaucratic,institutional,professionalcharacterofhighereducation is,themoreeffectiveitisinprofessionalterms,thelessSocraticitwillbe;itwilllack thenon-institutionalcharismathatmakeseducationworthwhile.Yet,iftheSocratic
charismais allowedto dominate,it willbe to the detrimentofprofessionalism,as wellasinstitutionalandbureaucraticefficiency.
THETRIPARTITEARTICULATIONOFHIGHEREDUCATION: UTILITY,EXCELLENCE,ANDHIGHERKNOWLEDGE
Oneislongusedtothethought thatthereisnoSocrates without Plato.The argument above,however, claimsthatpriortothatthereisnoSocrates without Protagoras.And,thereisalsonoPlatowithoutProtagoras.Socrates,Protagoras,and Platotogetherformthefirstphilosophical alphabetthatisabletospelloutthe problem ofmoralphilosophy:Canpeoplebemadebetterbyeducation?Isvirtue teachable;is virtuetransferableby meansof reasoning?Is virtueknowledge?The articulationofthisalphabetdependsonthedistinctivefeaturesbetweeneachpairof itsthreeelements.Firstly,thecontrastbetweenProtagorasandSocratesspellsout thedifferencebetweenknowledgeproducedinstrumentallyasopposedtoknowl- edgethatcomesaboutwithoutapurpose.Secondly,thereisthecontrastbetweenthe conception heldbothbySocratesandProtagoras thatreasoning isahuman productionofknowledgeandPlato’sconceptionofreasonasthecorrectrepresen- tationoftruth.ProtagorasandSocratesmightdisagreeaboutwhetherlearning shouldbeinstrumental orpursuedforitsownsake,buttheycertainlyagree(in contrasttoPlato)thatknowledgeisnoteternallygiven,tobefoundbythoseluckily kissedbytheMuses,butisbeingproduced intheprocessoflearning. Therefore, eachoneofthethreeisafoiltobothoftheothers;thethreephilosophicalpositions that form thefirst articulationoftheproblemofmoraleducationcome into being relativetoeachotherandcontrastingeachother.Anachronistically,Plato’seduca- tionalconservatismservesasafoiltoProtagoras’seducationalrevolution(the sophistEnlightenment) evenifPlatoemergesastheleadingapologistofthe traditionalaristocraticorderonlyafterProtagoras’sdeath.7
TheorganizingmetaphorofPlato’stheoryofknowledgeisvisualperceptionof reflectionsofexternalforms.Incontrast,theSocraticmetaphorforknowledgeisthe processofontogeny fromconception throughgestationtogivingbirth.Thetwo conceptions sharplydiffer:knowledge understood asproduction hastheautono- mouscapacitytobringsomethingforththathithertohasnotexisted—andhencehas aradicallytemporal(andpersonal)nature—whilespeculativeknowledge,asPlato claims,isacopyorreflection oftimelessexternaltruths.Bythisdifference of epistemologyPlatoandSocratesarestronglydividedandthisdivisionserveswell asaguideinsortingoutthePlatonicthoughtsfromtheSocraticonesinthedialogues.
Accordingly,thecontrastsbetweenthePlatonicandtheSocraticeducational andmoralphilosophy canbedelineated fromtheirdifferentepistemological underpinnings. Learning,forPlato,consistsofapassivereflectionofexternally giventruthsinthelearner’s mind,thatis,thatitemanates fromtheobjective externalitytowardthesubjectiveinternality.ThedirectioninthemodelofSocratic learningis justtheopposite:knowledgeemanatesfroma particularmindat work. ForSocrates,therefore,learningispersonalsomuchsothatitisinseparablybound upwithself-knowledge. Anyknowledgeproducedintheprocessoflearningis rootedintheuniquecharacter(ethos)ofthethinkingsubject.Thereisnoanonymous
knowledge—itisalwayssomeone’sknowledge,alwayssomeone’sbabythat
Socratesasa midwifehelpsto deliver.
Knowledge intheSocraticviewpertainstoethos:itisethical.TheSocratic programmeof“virtue isknowledge”understoodthisway(thatisthatknowledge alwayspertainstoethos)issimplyagentlerformulationofProtagoras’sepistemo- logicalperspectivismthatdeniestheanonymityofknowledgeincludingthatof demonstrativereasoning.SocratesthuscanhardlybetoldapartfromProtagorasas farastheirtheoryofknowledgeisconcerned.Theirrevolutionary stanceis perceivedbytheAthenianstateasaprovocation:Protagoras’sbooksareburntand heisforcedtofleeAthens underthethreatof execution,afateSocratesrefuses to escape.ProtagorasandSocratestogetherinduceanepistemologicalrevolutionthat introducesknowledgeashumanproductionwhilethe youngestofthem,Plato(or rather“Plato”inPlato)withhisidea-lore,conservesthepre-revolutionary tradi- tionalepistemology,claimingthattrueknowledgeis timelessanddivineinorigin bygivingitaphilosophical, moreprecisely,ametaphysical foundation.Despite theirantagonismmanifestedinthedilemmawhethervirtueisteachableasatechne ornot,Protagoras andSocratesfindthemselves inthesamecampopposing the dictumofPlatonicidealismthat true knowledgeistimelessand externaland only revealedto menofexcellence.
Ifvirtue isknowledge,theneducationmustbe(atleast)aquasi-techne8with specializedpowertoeffect moral improvementinhuman beings.Platonicepiste- mology,however,doesnotallowaphilosophicalconceptualizationofeducation, especiallynotasaquasi-techne.“Plato”canbeidentifiedinPlatobythethoughts, whichimplythatnoeducation,nohumaninstitutionorsingleindividualcanserve astheoriginoftrueknowledgeandvirtue;theoriginhastobedivine,timeless,and unchangeable. “Plato”inPlatoholdsthattrueknowledgeandvirtueultimately dependongoodbirthandnotonhumaneffort,thatis,learning.Thisisanaristocratic theoryofeducationthatcanbe understoodeitherasmetaphysicalorasbiological (racial)ortheirdangerous mixture. Itisthis“Plato”inPlatothatwillfallwhile Protagorasrises inthechiasmicmovementcreatedby theseesaw of thehistoryof ideas.9Socrates,justlikePlato,rejectsthesophisticpracticeofeducationastechne (mechanical production orcraft),yetadmitsitsanalogywithmedicinethatisan activityinwhichtechneislimitedbynature,chance,character,charisma,andhabit.
Insum:Platodeniesthatteaching couldproduce virtueortruth.Teaching, accordingtohim,doesnotproducebutonlycultivatesexcellenceinthosewhoare bornwithit.ThemetaphorforteachingunderlyingPlato’seducationalideasinthe Republicisbreeding.Protagoras,ontheotherhand,dedicateshislifetoteachingas aprofession;hebelieves,notonlythathecanimprovehumanbeings,butalsothat hepossessestheguaranteesofdoingsoinformofhisprofessionalskills,thatis,what hecallshistechneofpolitics.Socratessacrificeshislifeforteaching,fortryingto improvehumanbeings,yethevehemently deniesthatheisateacher.Hehasno pupils,nota singleone,hedeclaresinhistrialinthepresenceof many(including Plato)whoprobablythinkotherwise.Socratesrefusestobeseenasateacherbecause heseesnopossibilitiesforprofessionalguaranteesfortheimprovementofahuman
beingevenifheisreadytodieforit.Socratic teaching isaquintessentiallynon- professionalactivitylikeOlympicsportsmanship.Hesaysinhisapologythatthefair sentencinginhistrialwouldbetoorderthestatetogivehimanunconditionalliving forhisdedicatedun-professionalservicetohiscommunitythesamewayOlympic athletesareinthecareofthestateindependentlyofwhethertheyactuallysucceed ornot in the races.The threepositionscorrespondwiththe threepossibleaimsof educationasmappedbyAristotle’squandary:“Theexistingpractice[ofeducation] isperplexing; nooneknowsonwhatprincipleweshouldproceed—shouldthe usefulinlife,or shouldexcellence,or shouldthehigherknowledge,betheaimof ourtraining?—allthreeoptionshavebeenentertained.”10Excellence isthe aristocratic valuepromoted inPlato’selitebreeding. Usefulnessisthebourgeois valuethatdrivesthesophisteducational philosophy. TheonlyconcernSocratic educationalphilosophyadmitsistheprodigiousachievementofhigherknowledge inwhichvirtueandknowledgecoincide.Yet,onecanseetheSocraticaimofhigher knowledgeasanintellectualizationofaristocraticexcellenceandtheultimateobject ofProtagoras’sbourgeoisself-advancementasthe social-economicstatusofaris- tocracy.Therefore,Plato’s“excellence”couldbethemotivationfor both“utility” and“higherknowledge.”Onehingeonwhichthephilosophyofeducationturnsis betweenSocratesandtheSophists.ItsotherhingeisbetweenSocratesandPlato.Let uspicturethenthephilosophy ofeducation asatriptychwithtwosmallerouter panelshingingas wings on thetwo sides ofa largermiddlepart,whichis entirely coveredwhenthe outerpanelsare folded.
1.AllquotationsfromPlato’sdialoguesinthetextaretakenfromTheCollectedDialoguesofPlato, eds. Edith HamiltonandHuntingtonCairns(Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress,1989).
2. Afterhisearlyfrustrationwithphysicalinvestigations,Socrateshas concludedthatitisimpossible tograspintellectuallyanythingintheincessantlymovingphenomenalworld.Insteadheescapestothe art(techne)oflogos.ThisinitselfdoesnotdifferentiatefrombutratherconnectshimwithProtagoras andthesophists.Thelinguistic-moralturnofphilosophyisasharedprojectofSocratesandthesophists (Phaedo99e–100e).
3. Gregory Vlastos,Socrates:IronistandMoralPhilosopher(Ithaca,N.Y.: CornellUniversityPress,
1991),45.
4.“Theearliestexamplesofits(paideia)useshowthatatthebeginningofthefifthcenturyitstillhad thenarrowmeaningof‘child-rearing’andpracticallynothingofitslater,highersense.”WernerJaeger, Paideia:TheIdealsofGreekCulture,vol.1 (Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1965),5.
5.Plato,Laches,Protagoras, Meno,Euthdemus, trans.W.R.M.Lamb(Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard
UniversityPress,1991)
6.Loeb,312a8–b4
7.“Basically,Plato’sphilosophyisareincarnationofthereligiousspiritofearlierGreekeducation,from
Homertothetragedians:bygoingbehindtheidealofthesophists,hewentbeyondit,”Jaeger,302–303.
8.Foracomprehensivediscussionofthetechnepolitikesee:EugeneGarver,Aristotle’sRhetoric:An
ArtofCharacter(ChicagoandLondon:UniversityofChicagoPress,1994).
9.W.K.C.Guthrie,TheSophists(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2003),10.
10.Aristotle,TheCompleteWorksofAristotle,ed.JonathanBarnes(Princeton,N.J.:Princeton
UniversityPress),1337a40–1337b1.