Smallholder cocoa cultivation in agroforestry systems of West and Central Africa
REF;
Duguma
International Center for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF)
IRAD/ICRAF Humid Lowlands of West Africa Research Program (HULWA)
P.O.Box., 2067 (Messa)
Yaounde, Cameroon
J. Gockowski
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) IITA-HFS
P.O.Box., 2008 (Messa)
Yaounde, Cameroon
J. Bakala
Institute of Agricultural Research for Development (IRA)
P.O.Box, 2123 (Messa)
Yaounde, Cameroon
Address for Correspondence:
Duguma, B., IRAD/ICRAF Program, P.O.Box 2067
(Messa), Tel. 237-237560, Fax. 237-237440, E-mail:
Yaounde, Cameroon
Abstract
The cultural features, management practices, environmental sustainability, and economic profitability of smallholder cocoa production in West and Central Africa are reviewed. The aim is to highlight factors affecting the production and marketing sector and to propose appropriate strategies to ensure sustainable and profitable production in the region. The cocoa cultivation system causes minimum damage to soil resources. In terms of carbon sequestration and below- and above-ground bio-diversity, the cocoa agroforest is superior to the competing food crop production land use based on the practice of slash-and-burn. Cocoa is inter-cropped with several high value tree species that provide shade to the cocoa tree and additional income and products for the farmers. Economic profitability analysis of the system in Cameroon showed that even with no value assigned to the inter-cropped species, the sector could still be profitable at current prices. In the late 1980s, the distorted economic policy and unfavorable international trade governing the sector made the system less attractive to the farmers such that many of them abandoned their farms or in some cases cut the trees in order to grow food crops. Technically, the system is environmentally sustainable. The fundamental question is thus what should be the research and development strategy that would enhance profitability and environmental resilience of cocoa production system and minimize risk to the farmers in order to sustain their interest. Based on the current review and our knowledge of the region, there is an urgent need to: a) rationalize and optimize arrangement of the various components in cocoa agroforest, b) domesticate high-value indigenous species and integrate them into the system in order to enhance the system’s diversity and profitability; c) develop shade-tolerant and disease-resistant cocoa varieties d) integrate small-stock production into the system, and e) develop an enabling policy environment addressing cocoa marketing, plant protection, land tenure, and transformation of non-cocoa primary products from the cocoa agroforests.
Key words: Sustainable cocoa, humid lowlands, bio-diversity, natural resources, and environment
I. Introduction
West and Central Africa’s principal cocoa (Theobroma cacao Linn.) producing countries (in order of importance) are Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, and Togo. Total annual rainfall of the cocoa growing areas of these countries ranges from 1200mm to 3000mm. The mean minimum temperature is between 20oC to 22oC while the mean maximum during the dry and wet season varies from 31oC to 32oC and 27oC to 29oC, respectively (Wood and Lass, 1987).
Cocoa is one of the most important cash crops and it is grown largely (>80%) by the small-scale farmers of the region (Assoumou, 1977). In 1900, Africa’s share of the total world cocoa production was mere 17%. In 1996, total production from the four largest producing countries accounted for 65% of the global output (ICCO, 1997). Compared to other agricultural activities, cocoa has been a leading sub-sector in the economic growth and development of these countries.
However, since the late 1980s, the cocoa sector has been subjected to several major economic shocks that have led to new institutional and organizational frameworks. This was particularly the case with countries such as Cameroon and Côte d’Ivoire whose economies depended heavily on the cocoa sector. The drastic fall in the world cocoa and other commodity prices at the time contributed to a substantial cuts in civil servants salaries, significant (50%) currency devaluation, freezes on employment, tax hikes and a reduction of state employees in both countries. Cocoa farmers and many state employees who lost their jobs or faced salary cuts responded to the crisis by increasing their activity in food crop production to compensate for lost income. This in turn led to a very significant increase in forest clearing with its attendant profound negative environmental, economic and political consequences.
The crop is predominantly cultivated in multi-product and multi-strata agroforests (Leplaideur, 1985; ICRAF, 1987). The multi-product feature of these systems has been developed by farmers to diversify production and minimize risk. At same time it plays a vital role in enhancing bio-diversity and contributing to the reduction of global warming. The cultural practice associated with cocoa production causes minimum damage to the fragile soil resources of the region compared to the equally dominant land use system based on the practice of shifting cultivation.
Technically, there is ample evidence to show that cocoa production in agroforestry systems in humid West and Central Africa is environmentally sustainable. At current (1997) prices, enterprise budgets show that these systems are again economically profitable unlike in recent years. In order to sustain farmer’s interest and promote the practice of sustainable cocoa agroforest therefore, deliberate and systematic harmonization of economic policies affecting the sector and improved management system through participatory application of indigenous knowledge and scientific principles is critical. This paper reviews major attributes of the existing cocoa agroforestry systems, associated economic and ecological opportunities and challenges and concludes by offering some suggestions on research needs and management strategies to promote sustainable cocoa production in the region.
Cocoa establishment and inter-cropping
The dominant cultural practice of cocoa production in the region involves planting of the trees on a forestland, selectively cleared and planted to various types of food crops for one or two seasons (Leplaideur, 1985; ICRAF, 1987, Duguma and Franzel, 1996; Duguma et al 1990). When land is cleared, indigenous fruit, medicinal, and timber tree species (e.g. groundnut tree (Ricinodendron heudelotii), cola (Cola nitida), Voacanga africana) are deliberately retained both for their economic value and to provide shade for the cocoa plant. The clearing is done manually (with the exception of the use of chain saw to fell big trees) which together with the no-tillage method used when planting, causes minimum or no disturbance to the fragile soils.
In Cameroon, the field is initially planted with a mixture of egussi melon (Cucumeropsis mannii) and maize (Zea mays). C.mannii, a very important food crop (used for condiments) in West Africa, is a climber that grows around the unburned logs thus conserving moisture, increasing humidity and accelerating the process of its decomposition (ICRAF, 1987). After harvesting the food crops, cocoa is inter-planted with maize, plantain (Mussa spp AAA), cassava (Manihot utilissima) and other food crops during subsequent cropping seasons. Inter-cropping with food crops is done to exploit the fertile soil and to increase shade for the cocoa seedlings. The cocoa is left to develop as farmers harvest the seasonal and annual crops as they mature.
Depending on the density of the retained species and the mortality rate of the cocoa seedlings, the system is enriched by planting additional tree crops such as mango (Mangifera indica), African plum (Dacryodes edulis), avocado (Persea americanum), guava (Psidium guajava), cola (Cola nitida), orange (Citrus sinensis), and mandarin (Citrus reticula). Successful inter-cropping of cocoa with coconut (Cocos nucifera), (Leach et al., 1974; Shepered et al., 1977; Ramadasan, et al. 1978) oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) (Hartley, 1966;Amoah et al., 1995), and rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) (Egbe and Adenikinju, 1990) is well documented. As the cocoa tree and the other components grow to maturity, the system evolves to a closed canopy multi-strata system that resembles natural forest with most of the positive attributes associated with it.
Yet several studies have reported that there is enormous potential to further diversify and enhance productivity and environmental resilience of the tree-based cropping systems of the region, including the cocoa agroforests (ICRAF, 1987, Duguma et al., 1990, Duguma, B., 1994; Tchatat, 1996, Leakey, in press). Most of the indigenous and exotic tree species grown in the system are unimproved genetically. There has been a little systematic research effort to improve the genetic base to enhance product quality and quantity or to identify pest- and disease-resistant strains. Many of the indigenous species have not been successfully propagated even by research. Research is therefore needed to address the selection, cultivation and other related issues to make sustainable cocoa more attractive to farmers.
Management requirement
The major management requirements of cocoa agroforest are shade control, weeding, pest and disease control, harvesting of pods and processing of beans (Wessel, 1987). According to Wessel, (1987), the role of shade in the management of cocoa agroforests is rather complex as it affects or is related to several other growth factors. It reduces light intensity, temperature and air movement, and influences relative humidity which indirectly affect photosynthesis and pest and disease management. Several reports suggest that, all other factors being equal, a level of shade that allows 20 to 30% of full light to reach the cocoa is needed for optimum growth and productivity (Lemée, 1955; Okali and Owusu, 1975). It should be noted however, that depending on the age of the tree and the intensity of light, there could be a significant variation in the level of shade requirement. This may vary from place to place and even from provenance to provenance. Farmers in West Africa are quite familiar with the importance of shade in cocoa cultivation but they receive little assistance, if any, on how to better manage shade at various stages of the plant development.
The most severe problem faced by cocoa farmers in the region is pest and disease control. At a global level, yield loss due to disease is estimated at about 30% (Padwick, 1956). In West Africa, it ranges from 10 to 80% (10 to 30% in Côte d’Ivoire, 30 to 50% in Ghana and Togo, and 50 to 80% in Cameroon (Lass, 1987; Nyasse, 1997; Bakala and Kone, 1998). Among the several diseases that are responsible for such loss, black pod (Phytophthora species) is the most important (Bakala, 1981; Lass, 1987). Similarly, several insects are reported to attack different parts of the plant at different stages of development. In West Africa, the insects of the family Miridae, also known as capsids are the most important and widely represented insect pest of cocoa (Entwistle, 1987; Bakala and Kone, 1998).
Depending on the prevailing climatic conditions in a given area, chemicals, cultural practices or biological control methods can be used to control cocoa pests and diseases. Enhancing air circulation through regular weeding and pruning, ensuring there is adequate drainage, and removing pod husks immediately after harvesting and extracting the beans are some of the cultural practices recommended (Muller, 1974; Maddison and Griffin, 1981). Copper-based fungicides are also reported to be very effective to control Phytophtora pod rot (Bakala and Kone, 1998).
Cocoa farmers in West and Central Africa have typically received subsidies and state support to control pest and disease. Cameroon is a case in point. Until the early 1990s, the government provided fungicides at no cost to the farmers and treated their plantations with insecticides. The cost for the service was recovered through a state controlled cocoa marketing system. Following the fall in price and subsequent liberalization of the marketing sector, the government discontinued the service. In the depressed cocoa markets, farmers were unwilling to pay for inputs or if they were willing, they had difficulty finding private suppliers. Consequently, cocoa production suffered of neglect and in some cases was abandoned (Losch et al., 1990). When devaluation of the FCFA occurred in 1994, the weak institutional development of privatized input market liberalized in 1992 inhibited a strong supply response; in contrast to Côte d’Ivoire where current production of 1.1 million tons is double the level in 1993. Developing cost effective and environmentally sustainable integrated pest and disease management is thus a possible strategy towards promoting cocoa agroforests. Equally important is the need to minimize risk to farmers’ at times of drastic institutional changes and fall in commodity price.
Bio-physical attributes and environmental implications.
Food crop production based on the practice of slash-and-burn or shifting cultivation and tree based cropping or agroforests are the two dominant land use systems in West and Central Africa (ICRAF, 1987; Duguma et al., 1990; Duguma and Franzel, 1996). The practice of slash-and-burn to open up land for food crop cultivation destroys the vegetation and, exposes the soil to harsh climatic factors (intense solar radiation and heavy raindrops), thus leading to disruption of the closed nutrient cycle. Burning the vegetation after clear felling increases both soil and air temperature (Ahn, 1974; Lal et al., 1975) resulting in significant changes in soil biological activities. Soon after burning, exchangeable base, available phosphorus, organic matter, and soil pH values increase temporarily (Jha et al., 1979; Sanchez and Salinas, 1981; IRA/ICRAF, 1996) and benefit the 1st or 2nd crop considerably (Nair, 1984). In subsequent years however, crop yields decline drastically due to soil fertility depletion, increased weed infestation, deterioration of soil physical properties and increased insect and disease attack (Sanchez, 1976). These are the main reasons why farmers crop a newly opened forestland only for 2 or 3 seasons before reverting it to fallow (ranging from 3 to > 20 years).
By contrast, cocoa agroforests, in which the process begins with partial clearing and burning and involves cultivation of cocoa and other tree crops, remain productive and environmentally sustainable for up to 50 years, at a level comparable to long-term fallows or primary forests. In natural forest, the plant nutrients are tied up in the above- and below ground vegetation, litter and the thin layer (0 to 20 cm) of topsoil and recycled in a closed energy system. Cocoa agroforests, unlike the annual crop fields, approach this system.
Out of the 15 million hectares of the world’s primary forest that is destroyed each year (ICRAF, 1995), the practice of shifting cultivation is reported to account for over 60% (ICRAF, 1995; FAO, 1997) and contributes to a significant loss in above and below ground bio-diversity. To contain the problem, protectionist policies (such as establishing forest reserves or national parks) were promoted for a long time (ICRAF, 1995). However, at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, held in 1992, world leaders recognized the need to complement protectionist policies with a focus on the human dimension. This was reflected in 2 statements in Agenda 21, which read " to limit and aim to halt destructive shifting cultivation by addressing the underlying social and ecological causes" and "to reduce damage to forest by promoting sustainable management of areas adjacent to the forest". Out of this concern, a global program called The Alternative to Slash-and-Burn (ASB) was born. The program, operational since 1995 in Cameroon, characterized and evaluated environmental parameters in various land use systems, including the cocoa agroforests. Its aim is to take stock of the environmental dimensions of various land use systems with a view to identifying or developing long-term best-bet alternatives.
One of the parameters measured was total vegetation biomass in primary forest, food crop fields, short- to long-term fallows (land left idle after 1 or 2 cropping cycles to naturally regenerate soil fertility), and cocoa agroforests. The result showed that total biomass in cocoa agroforests (304 t ha-1) was by far greater than that in food crop fields (85 t ha-1) and ranked third after the biomass in primary forests (541 t ha-1) and long-term fallows (460 t ha-1) (Table 1) (IRAD, 1997). Comparative assessment of selected top soil nutrients in secondary forests and cocoa-dominated tree based home gardens of southern Cameroon also showed that soil pH, organic matter, calcium and magnesium are greater in cocoa dominated home gardens, compared to that in secondary forest (Table 2) (ICRAF, 1996). According to Kotto-Same et al., (1997), cocoa agroforests contained 62% of the carbon stock found in primary forest. Above-ground plant bio-diversity and below-ground micro-fauna in the cocoa agroforests are also reported to be greater than that in crop fields, comparable to those in short- and mid-term fallows and 2nd to that in primary forests (IRAD, 1997; Zapfac, personal communication). According to ICRAF et al., 1997, studies conducted in Sumatra, Indonesia show that, if compared to natural forests, biodiversity levels in rubber and damar resin agroforests reach 50% for plants (30% for trees, 50% for treelets and epiphytes, 50 to 95% for lianas and 100% for undergrowth plants), 60% for birds and close to 100% for soil mesofauna.
It can be concluded that the cocoa agroforests land use systems are superior to the competing food crop production systems in terms of environmental indices and natural resource management parameters reviewed. Its full benefit can, however, be realized only if it remains economically attractive to smallholder farmers. This requires a significant improvement in management, policy and economic spheres as it affects the system.
Socioeconomic and policy features of small holder cocoa with particular reference to the Cameroon case.
Government interventions in the cocoa sector have been numerous across West Africa. In recent years however, at the bequest of the World Bank and the International Monitory Fund (IMF), many governments have began to loosen controls on the sector. In Cameroon, despite the decline in world prices, cocoa remains the most important cash crop in terms of value and volume produced. In addition to the export of beans, processed cocoa butter and paste accounts for approximately 15% of the FOB export value in the cocoa sector compared to robusta coffee whose export represents almost no added value (UNCTAD, 1995). From 1996 to 1997, the ASB Program of Cameroon evaluated the effect of economic and political impact on smallholder cocoa production in southern Cameroon; the major findings of which are provided below (See Gockowski et al., 1997 for details).