BORROWING
· Borrowing: process in which one language takes words from another language and makes them part of its own vocabulary.
· Recipient language: language which borrows;
· Donor language: language which is borrowed from;
· Loanword: is a word which originally was not part of the vocabulary of the recipient language but was adopted from some other language and made part of the borrowing language’s vocabulary.
Exemple: Pork is a French loanword in English.
· Languages borrow words from other languages because :
1. They need a new term to go along with the new acquisition .
Exemples: many languages have similar words for automobile, coffee, tobacco, Coca-cola;
2. the foreign term, for some reasons of prestige, is highly esteemed; ex: pork, beef, and other terms of cuisine from France;
3. the foreign word adopted is deregatory, it has a negative evaluation. It is much rarer.
Exemples: French habler “to brag” is borrowed from Spanish hablar”to speak”; ex: assassin comes from Arabic where it means “hashish-eater”.
· Adaptation or phoneme substutution: a kind of language-contact situation. Process in which the foreign sounds introduced to recipient languge, are changed to conform to native sounds and phonetic constraints. So, a foreign sounds which does not exist in the receiving language will be replaced by the nearest phonetic equivalent to it in the borrowing language.
Exemples of loans borrowed from German into Finnish: German b,d,g → Finnish p,t,k: bardaz (beard)→ parta;
Exemples of loans borrowed from Spanish into a Sayula Popoluca: Spanish l,n>Sayula Popoluca n→ kúnu:s (cross)>kruz.
· Accomodation: a kind of language-contact situation. Process in which loanwords are modified to fit the phonological combinations permitted in the borrowing language. Methods used are delation, addition or recombination of certain sounds.
Exemples: Formerly Mayan languages do not permit the initial consonant clusters: Spanish cruz>rus in Chon; cruz>kurusin Tzotzil. However through an intimate contact and the introduction of many borrowings from other languages Finnish phonology now permits loans with initial clusters: krokotiili “crocodile”, presidentii “president” (direct phonological diffusion).
· Direct phonological diffusion: a kind of intimate and extensive language-contact situation; new phonemes can be introduced into the borrowing language together with borrowed words which contain these new sounds, resulting in changes in the phonemic inventory of the borrowing language.
Exemples: phonemes borrowed from French into English: French phonemic [v] vrai> very, valée>valley. The sound [v] occurred in native English words only as the intervocalic variant (allophone) of /f/: leaf-leaves, wife-wives.
· Substitutions in borrowed words in a language are not always uniform because:
1. it can depend on the time. The older loans reflect sound substitutions before intimate contact brought new sounds and patterns into the borrowing language, while more recent borrowings may exhibit the newer segments or patteners acquired after amore intensive contact.
Exemple: Sayula Populuca turu “bull”→earlier loans would have substituted r with n. Tzotzil palatu “dishes” →earlier loans, when Tzotzil permitted no initial consonant clusters and Tzotzil platu “plate” borrowed later from Spanish.
2. it can depend on the pronunciation: Finnish meikka “to make up” based on english pronuniation of make /meik/, and on spelling pronunciation : Finnish jeeppi “jeep” can only be based on a spelling pronunciation of “jeep”.
3.5 How do we identify Loanwords and determine the direction of borrowing?
The most important thing is to ascertain which language is the source (donor) and which the recipient (borrower). We can identify different rules of thumb:
3.5.1 Phonological clues
The strongest evidence for loanword identification and the direction of borrowing comes from phonological criteria.
1) Phonological patterns of the language. Words containing sounds which are not normally expected in native words are candidates for loans.
Ex. Native Nahuatl words are not expected to begin with p, since Proto-Uto-Aztecan initial *p was lost through regular sound change in Nahuatl (*p>h>O, for ex. Proto-Uto-Aztecan *pa: > Nahuatl a: - “water”). For this reason, Nahuatl roots such as petla- “woven mat”, pak- “to cure”, violate
expectations for sounds in native forms.
2) Phonological history. In some cases where the phonological history of the languages of a family is known, information concerning the sounds that they have undergone can be helpful for determining loans, the direction of borrowing and what the donor language was.
Ex. In the Mayan family, a number of languages have borrowed from Cholan (Mayan). Cholan has undergone a number of sound changes which languages of the other branches of the family did not. For example, Cholan underwent the sound *o: >u. Yucatec, native of Cholan, did not undergo this sound change: Ex. Yucatec kùts “turkey”< Cholan Kuts (from *ko:ts).
3.5.2 Morphological complexity
The morphological make up of words can help to determine the direction of borrowing. When a form of one language is morphologically complex (2 or more morphemes) or has an etymology which is morphologically complex, but the form in the other languages has no morphological analysis, then usually the donor language is the one with the monomorphemic form.
Ex. English alligator is borrowed from Spanish el largato “the alligator”, since it is monomorphemic in English, but based on two morphemes in Spanish, el “the” e lagarto “alligator”.
3.5.3 Clues from cognates
When a word in two (or more) languages is suspected of being borrowed, if it has legitimate cognates across sister languages of one family, but is found in only one language (or a few) of another family, then the donor language is usually one of the languages for which the form in question has cognates in the related languages.
Ex. Finnish tytär “daughter” has no cognates in the other branches of the Finno-Ugric family, while cognates of Proto-Indo-European *dhugәter is known from most Indo-European languages.
3.5.4 Geographical and ecological clues
The geographical and ecological associations of words suspected of being loans can often provide clues helpful to determining if they are borrowed and what the identity of the donor language is.
Ex. English words such as zebra, gnu, impala, animals that can be found in Africa, makes these words likely candidates for loanwords in English
3.5.6 Other semantic clues
Others inferences can be obtained from semantic domain of a suspected loan.
Ex. English words such as squaw, papoose powwow have paraphrases involving “Indian”/”Native American”, that is, “Indian woman”, “Indian baby”, “Indian house”, and so on; this suggests possible borrowing from American Indian languages.
3.6 Loans as Clues to linguistic changes in the past
Evidence presented in loanwords may help to document older stages of a language before later changes took place.
Ex. Spanish contrast bilabial stop b ( which comes from Latin initial b and intervocalic p) and fricative v ( which comes from late Latin initial v and from intervocalic v and b) although these are merged in modern Spanish to the single /b/.
Early loanwords from Spanish into American Indian languages (hispanisms) show clearly that the contrast persisted at least long enough to arrive in America. In the early hispanisms, /v/ was borrowed as /w/ since most Native American languages lacked v ( Spanish jabón “soap” in the sixteenth cent., borrowed as: Huastec “ſapu:n”, Chol “ſapum”), whereas the /b/ of earlier Spanish was borrowed as /b/, /Б/ or /p/ (navaja “knife, razon”: Akateko nawas, Tzotzil navaſaſ).
This loans demonstrate:
- the phonetic nature of original sounds
- the fact that this merger of /b/ and /v/ had yet taken place in the mid-sixteenth century when these languages began to borrow from Spanish.
all theelements of a language can be borrowed by another language, like phonological structures ormorphological and syntactical elements.There are two main reasons which induce speakers to adopt words from another language:
1)intense and importantcontacts with the population who speaks that language
2)the conviction that the word coming from the other language can express a concept in a better way.the contact with other idioms leads to the loss of certain sounds which don't exist or are uncommonin that linguistic area, or to the retention of some sounds that have disappeared in the country where the original language was spoken but still exist in another linguistic area.
Also sounds can be affected by neighbouring languages,like stress rules or phonological rules in general:for example sound changes affect languages spoken in the same area.Sometimes languages don't borrow the form of a foreignword but only its meaning;this process is called calque:for example the word for railway is in many idioms a calque of iron+road, or the word for skyscraper is wolkenkratzer in german , gratteciel in french and rascacielo in spanish.Another phenomenon is the foreignization of sounds included in foreign words in order to make them sound even more foreign.