PSY206:Research Methods in Psychology

Lecture Notes

By

J.M. Kasayira

The Nature of social Research

Social research involves the collection of data or the collection of as set measures about social phenomena. The characteristics of these social phenomena fall into broad classes, namely, quantitative and qualitative categories.

There are those attributes of social phenomena which when measured yield numerical or statistical information or other words, numbers. All those types of research which employ numbers, statistics or quantified phenomena as their method are classified under quantitative research.

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research seeks to make a scientific inquiry through the collection, organization, analysis and interpretation of quantifiable, statistical or numerical data.

This type of research is based on the empiricist paradigm in social science which views social phenomena as being capable of being measured objectively just like physical phenomena.

Characteristics of quantitative research:

  • Involves the reduction of measures into specific units for which each individual has one measurement from a continuous spectrum e.g. time, distance, speed, frequency, height, weight, IQ, examination results (% or scores) bank balance
  • Yields empirical data that is objective and value-neutral
  • Focuses on measurable attributes of an input or output/outcome nature
  • Yields data that can be statistically manipulated to varying degrees of manipulated to varying degrees of sophistication and at different levels (descriptive and inferential)

Data from quantitative research are mere pointers to a number of possibilities.The statistical facts however accurate they may be can only put across meanings as aresult of interpretation based on other external criteria.

Qualitative Research

There are aspects of social phenomena that may be observable and can be reported, but are not quantifiable and so cannot easily be reduced to numbers or statistical data. Such attributes are however, describable through a focus on their qualitative characteristics.

These characteristics are difficult to objectively observe and assess. It is difficult for any two people to make exactly the same observation of or on them. Frequently, it is impossible to reach complete agreement when a judgment is made on these aspects because they often involve values.

Qualitative Research

This type of research is based on the interpretive paradigm in social science.

  • The results of such research are discrete data which include counting people or characteristics into groups e.g. blood groups, gender, pass/fail examination results, black/white etc.
  • Examines phenomena in their natural setting, hence the use of the term “naturalistic inquiry”. The researcher’s primary aim is to describe, not to conclude or to generalize.
  • Focuses on the derivation or construction of meanings from the real life situation.
  • Is mainly interested in the process, not the end product or terminal outcome. It is concerned with the how and why aspects of phenomena.

Whereas we have tried to clarify the distinction between quantitative end qualitative attribute of social phenomena, we must point out that there is a way in which you can qualify quantitative aspects of phenomena, just as it is also true that you can quantify their qualitative attributes.

We can talk of the crispness or taste of bread from popular Bakery or attitudes of people towards work:

Quality of bread / frequency / Attitude towards work / frequency
Poorly crisped / 2 / Negative attitude 150
Well crisped / 91 / Neutral 10
Over crisped / 7 / Positive attitude

In this case, an unquantifiable aspect of a phenomenon (crispness) has been quantified on the basis on quantifiable criteria interms of bread falling into each category.

The discussion should lead to the conclusions you may wish to draw.

List of Steps in Carrying out a Research

Identify topic research

Formulate problem/research question Hypothesise/make assumptions. Decide who to get information from.

Decide how to get information.

Design the information-gathering instrument.

Revise the instrument.

Administer the instrument/collect information.

Summarize, tabulate and interpret the information.

Answer the problem/research question.

Recommend action.

Generally a research project report is divided into five chapters whose major elements tend to be the same with slight variations of emphasis depending on institutions and level of programme being pursued. What follows are some of the elements included in different chapters:

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Background to the study

This section may also be referred to as context of the problem. It acquaints the reader with the problem to be dealt with. A relevant context or a frame of reference for the problem is established through citation of relevant literature.

1.2 Statement of the problem

In one or two sentences, the statement of the problem should identify all major variables to be researched on in their conceptual form. The relationship of the variables to be investigated is stated, sometimes in question form.

1.3 Sub-problems/Research questions

These are questions which identify the nature of the research problem or the issue you wish to focus on. Research questions follow logically from the statement of the problem (the research problem)

There are three categories of research questions:

  • Descriptive questions ask what some events or phenomena are like, excluding results of experiments.
  • The difference questions look for differences between participants
  • The relationship questions explore the extent to which variables are related.

1.4 Hypotheses

Research hypothesis states the expected relationship between variables

(a) Hypotheses are used when looking for relationship or difference

(b) Statistical hypotheses are stated in two forms-directional and null.

(c) The null hypothesis generally expresses the idea of some difference.

1.5 Significance (or importance) of the study

This is an indication of the value or relevance of the problem both to practice andto theory. The potential benefits of the prospective or hypothesized findings are stated in this section.

1.6 Assumptions

Assumptions are statements of what the researcher believes to be facts but these cannot be verified.

1.7 Theoretical framework

This is a collection of theories and models from the literature which supports a positivistic research study:

The theoretical framework is a fundamental part of the positivistic type of research as it explains the research questions or hypotheses.

1.8Delimitations off the study

Delimitation is also referred to as the scope of the study. It gives both conceptual and practical boundaries of the study

1.9 Limitations

Limitations are those conditions beyond the control of the researcher that may place restrictions on the conclusions of the study and their application to other situations.

1.10 Definition of Terms

Important terms especially variables are defined in operational terms, that is, they should either be observable or measurable.

Chapter 2: Review of related literature

Literature review is a written summary of the findings from sources of published data. Items to include are:

(a) The similarities and differences between your present study and studies done by other researchers;

(b)The weakness, short-comings and strong points of other studies;

(c ) Anticipation of how this research study will fill in the gap.

*Use your research questions to develop subheadings for the chapter

Chapter 3: Research Methodology

3.1 Research design

This refers to the detailed plan for conducting a research study (Hussey and Hussey 1997:183) is the plan for the study providing a framework for collecting data (Leedy 1980).

3.2 Participants

This concern the size and major characteristics of the sample or population being studied.

There are various ways of getting data which include interviews mailed questionnaires, participated observation or secondary data retrieval from existing records. The choice of the instrument depend on several factors including the design, appropriateness and how reliable and valid the data collected in a particular manner is going to be. A pilot study can also be included here. This is a small scale study to test the instruments and other viability aspects.

3.3 Research Instruments

3.4 Data collection Procedure

The procedure section should describe all operational details such that another researcher would need to know to be able to replicate the method.

Such details usually include;

(1) The specific order in which steps were undertaken

(2) The timing of the study.

(3) Instructions given to subject, and

(4)Briefings, debriefings and safeguards.

3, 5 Data analysis procedure

This section describes the method(s)

Of data treatment, that is the analyses to be undertaken, quantitative or qualitative or both types of statistics to be under any are only mentioned here

Chapter 4; Data presentation and analysis

4. 1 Data presentation

Here statements of results are presentation terms of tables, charts, graphs or other figures and text depending on the nature of the project.The text should not duplicate information

In the tables and figures but should highlighting significant aspects of the finding.

4. 2Data Analysis

The researcher follows the analyses plan laid out in the preceding chapter. The results are explained to help clarify what is presented in tables, graphs or statistical test results. No interpretation.

Chapter 5:Discussion, conclusions and recommendations

5.1 Discussion

The discussion is the interpretation of the results. It is not the discussion of new material except in so far as the new material helps in understanding the results.Here the findings are tied together in relation to theory and review of literature. If the study was set up to test hypothesis, the discussion section must report the outcome of each hypothesis. The statistical test must also be appropriate. Methodological differences between your study and previous studies which might explain any disparities in the findings should be highlighted. Explain why the disparities might explain the different outcomes. Finally ensure that all the results of the sub-problems\sub-questions\hypotheses are discussed.

5. 2 Conclusions

There are research based answers to the sub-problems\sub-questions\hypotheses stated in chapter one. Only conclusions that can be justifiably drawn from the finding should be made. Take care not to drop in an opinion for which no evidence is provided in the project\research

5. 3 Recommendations

Here suggestions, based on the data, are given as o what should be for stake holders to benefit more

6 References

Only books and articles which have been cited or referred to in the report must be provided (see a separate handout for recommendation referencing