Procrastination: Causes and Effects

Procrastination: Causes and Effects

I.Introduction

A.Students often procrastinate when a paper is due.

B.Putting things off is common.

C.Researchers disagree about the causes and benefits of procrastination.

II.What is procrastination?

A.All definitions include the idea of delay.

1.Steel (2007a) stresses negative consequences of delay.

2.Ferrari (2005) distinguishes between normal and “chronic” procrastination.

B.Ferrari (2000) identifies three types of procrastinators:

1.arousal types get a thrill from beating deadlines

2.avoiders put off doing things that might make others think badly of them

3.decisional procrastinators postpone making choices

III.What causes procrastination?

A.Researchers have identified several possible causes.

1.Chronic procrastinators tend to have low self-esteem and focus on the past (Specter & Ferrari, 2000).

2.Procrastinators may resist an authoritarian parenting style or excessive external demands (Marano, 2003).

3.People who procrastinate tend to be perfectionists (Specter & Ferrari, 2000).

B.Steel (2007b) supports Discounted Expectancy Theory.

1.This is the only theory supported by research.

2.At first, rewards for putting off a task are greater; later, rewards for finishing the project are greater.

3.Steel believes this complete theory includes smaller “piece[s] of the puzzle”:

a.Rebellion is one example.

b.Avoiding difficult tasks is another.

IV.What are the effects of procrastination?

A.Researchers tend to focus on the bad effects.

1.Procrastinators tend to get lower grades (Tice & Baumeister, 1997).

2.People who put things off are more likely to get sick (Tice & Baumeister, 1997).

3.Businesses lose money (“DePaul,” 2007).

B.A few researchers identify positive effects.

1.Choi and Chu (2003) say “active procrastinators” can adapt to fast-changing environments.

2.Schraw, Wadkins, and Olafson (2007) describe students who use procrastination to manage their time.

V.Conclusion

A.Most researchers focus on the negative effects.

B.However, this approach may be too simplistic.

C.Deliberately choosing to procrastinate may be an effective way to deal with

1.Expectations that change rapidly

2. Deadlines that are unrealistic

References

Chu, A. H., & Choi, J. N. (2005, June 1). Rethinking procrastination: Positive effects of “active” procrastination on attitudes and performance. Journal of Social Psychology. Retrieved from HighBeam database.

DePaul University study shows prevalence of chronic procrastination regardless of gender or national origin [Press release]. (2007, July 16). Retrieved August 3, 2007, from

Ferrari, J. (2000, Special Issue). Procrastination and attention: Factor analysis of attention deficit, boredomness, intelligence, self-esteem, and task delay frequencies. Journal of Social Behavior & Personality, 15(5), 185-196. Retrieved from Academic Search Elite database.

Ferrari, J. (2005, December 7). There’s always tomorrow [Live chat with E. Hoover]. Transcript available at Chronicle of Higher Education website:

Marano, H. E. (2003, August 23). Procrastination: Ten things to know. Retrieved from

Schraw, G., Wadkins, T., & Olafson, L. (2007). Doing the things we do: A grounded theory of academic procrastination. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(1), 12–25.

Specter, M., & Ferrari, J. (2000, Special Issue). Time orientations of procrastinators: Focusing on the past, present, or future? Journal of Social Behavior & Personality, 15(5), 197-202. Retrieved from Academic Search Elite database.

Steel, P. (2007a). Definition of procrastination. Retrieved from Procrastination Central website:

Steel, P. (2007b). Theories of procrastination. Retrieved from Procrastination Central website:

Tice, D., & Baumeister, R. (1997, November). Longitudinal study of procrastination, performance, stress, and health: The costs and benefits of dawdling. Psychological Science, 8(6), 454-458. Retrieved from Academic Search Elite database.