GRAMMAR GUIDE

Punctuation
IP – Improper Punctuation / Period / a. used at the end of every declarative or imperative sentence
  • Grammar is easy sometimes.

b. used after most abbreviations and initials
  • Mrs. Cordell
  • T. S. Elliot

c. always placed inside end quotation marks
  • Hector called Mrs. Cordell’s class the “best sleep I ever got.”

d. three periods (an ellipsis) indicate the omission of some text—use four if it ends the sentence
  • The language section of the rubric always kicks my….

Question Mark / a. used at the end of a question
  • Did I use this right?

b. placed inside quotation marks onlyif it applies to the quotation
  • He asked, “Do you hate grammar too?”
  • Do you also hope to be a “Grammar Guru”?

c. used in parentheses to indicate uncertainty
  • I got home at 11:00 p.m. (?) last night.

Semicolon / a. used between two closely related independent clauses that are not joined by a conjunction
  • Mark couldn’t handle punctuation; he could never distinguish the differences between colons and semicolons.

b. used between two independent clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb* (a comma follows the conjunctive adverb)
  • I would have studied my grammar; however, I didn’t really want to be taken seriously.
* consequently, for example, for instance, hence, however, instead, nevertheless, otherwise, then, therefore, thus
c. used for clarity in a sentence that contains many commas
  • My group includes Joel, the know-it-all; Abby, the flirt; and Michael, the class clown.

d. always placed outside end quotation marks
  • I call Mrs. Cordell “coach”; her writing exercises are more intense than spring training.

Colon / a. used to introduce a series following a noun or the phrase “as follows”
  • I still don’t understand the following types of punctuation: periods, questions marks, and exclamation points.

b. used to introduce an important quotation when an independent clause precedes the quotation
  • In Act IV, when Proctor is thinking of confessing, he considers the effect of his actions: “I have three children – how may I teach them to walk like men in the world, and I sold my friends?” (239).

c. used after a salutation in a business letter
  • Dear Sir:

d. used between the hour and the minute and between the chapter and the verse of the Bible
  • 1:45
  • Matthew 2:6

Comma / a. used to separate items in a list of three or more
  • The cat, the dog, and the mouse all understand commas.

b. used between two or more adjectives used to describe the same noun only when the order of the adjectives doesn’t matter
  • Eric used crisp, clean punctuation
  • He wore a bright cashmere sweater. (order matters)

c. used between independent clauses in a compound sentence
  • The comma is intimidating, but it is beneficial to learn it correctly.

d. used after an introductory dependent clause or prepositional phrase in a complex sentence
  • Because of demanding time constraints, most students won’t read this.
  • After the ACT, most students will wish they had read this.

e. used before and after verbal phrases non-essential phrases and clauses in a sentence (verbal phrases, appositives, parenthetical phrases, non-restrictive clauses)
  • Mrs. Cordell, reading carefully, finds each and every grammar error.
  • Grammar, the second fiddle of Language, doesn’t get the credit it’s due.
  • Mrs. Cordell, of course, put too much time into this.
  • Students who eat apples learn grammar faster (restrictive—no commas)

f. used to set off the words of a direct address
  • If you could please, Floyd, pay attention to what I am saying.

g. used after an interjection at the beginning of a sentence
  • Yikes, there are a lot of comma rules.

h. used to separate items in dates and places
  • The AP Test is Friday, May 9th, 2014, in Culver City, CA.

i. used to set off a quotation from the rest of the sentence
  • “Please,” said Mrs. Cordell, “take the time to study this.”

j. used to indicate omitted words in a phrase.
  • Julia learn the first ten rules; Jimmy, the second ten.

k. used after salutations at the beginning of a personal letter
  • Dear Carl,

l. used after the complimentary closing in business or personal letters
  • Sincerely,

m. used before and after degrees and titles
  • Mrs. Cordell, Ph. D., is a doctor of diction.

Quotation Marks / a. used in dialogue*
  • “Holy cow!” he cried.
*each change in speaker is a new paragraph
b. used at the beginning of each paragraph in a multiple-paragraph quotation (only used at the end of the last paragraph)
c. used around the titles of short literary works
  • “The Basics of Grammar” is an article in Grammar Weekly.

d. used to emphasize a particular word or letter
  • He put the “Mad” in Madagascar.

e. single quotation marks are used for a quotation within a quotation
  • “I love that song ‘Conjunction Junction,’” said Troy.

REMINDER: Commas and periods are placed inside the quotation always.
Apostrophe / a. used to indicate missing letters or numbers
  • can’t (cannot)
  • ’14 (2014)

b. used to create the plural form or numbers, letter, or words being discussed
  • You used seven “if’s” in that paragraph.
  • The gymnast got “10’s” from each of the ten judges.

c. used to indicate possessives
  • Kerry’s paper

i. words that end in s or ss use ‘s / ii. words that have a plural form ending in s use s’ / iii. words that end in es, is, and the name Jesus use just ’
Dash / a. used to indicate an interruption
  • I was just about to—holy cow, a UFO!

b. used to separate a parenthetical expression from the rest of the sentence
  • Mrs. Cordell said—and she is always right—that learning the dash will greatly improve the style of my writing.

c. used before and after appositives that contain commas
  • Kyra—a nice, charming student—includes a dash in each paper.

d. used for emphasis
  • The dash is really—I mean really—helpful.

e. used for phrases that clarify the meaning.
  • He studied forever—six hours on Monday, another four on Tuesday, all day Wednesday, and a cram session on Thursday.

Parentheses / a. used to enclose parenthetical expressions
  • Plagiarism in papers has increased (see chart) since 1995.

b. used to reference source of citations
  • Six out of ten students prefer the dash to the comma (Grammar 23).

Exclamation Point / a. used to indicate strong emotion*
  • Yikes! I can’t believe how big that spider is.
*An unwritten rule in writing states that writers can use five to ten exclamation points in their lifetimes. (Life isn’t usually that exciting.) Use them sparingly please (think Elaine from Seinfeld).
b. like a question mark, exclamation points are placed inside or outside of the quotation mark depending on the sentence
  • He cried, “I can’t feel my legs!”
  • I cringe at the sound of the word “Grammar”!

Hyphen / a. used to combine two words into a compound adjective (as long as they precede the noun.
  • The quality of the performance indicated that they were a well-rehearsed band.

b. used in numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine
  • thirty-seven

c. used after “half” when half is used as a prefix
  • He was only half-aware or losing his half-dollar.

d. used for age-based adjectives but not for ages
  • He is three years old
  • He is a three-year-old phenom.

Italics / a. use for titles of long literary works, magazines, newspapers, films, and TV shows
  • The class is excited to read The Taming of the Shrew.

b. used for the names of works of art, of ships, and of planes
  • He sailed to class each day in the S. S. Lang

c. used for emphasis of certain words or to indicate vocal stress
  • He was really sick of writing these sentences.

Common Mistakes
AWK / Awkward / This marking indicates something abnormal about the word choice, syntax, or overall feel of the sentence. Consider one of the following revision suggestions:
  • read through the sentence to listen for unconventional language use
  • check for unusual vocabulary choices or two many “big” words
  • look for ways to break up the sentence into multiple sentences

AA / Adjectives vs. Adverbs / a. don’t use an adjective when you should use an adverb
  • Wrong: You write good.
  • Right: You write well.
  • W: That essay is real long.
  • R: That essay is really long.

b. don’t use an adverb when you should use an adjective (linking verbs)
  • W: The cake smells really beautifully.
  • R: The cake smells really beautiful.

AE / Adjective Errors / a. use the word other or else whenever the comparative degree of an adjective is used with than (unless the nouns compared are different—She is smarter than any boy.)
  • W: She is smarter than any student in her class.
  • R: She is smarter than any other student in her class.

b. use an –ed ending with animate creatures not objects
  • right-handed pitcher
  • long-sleeve T-shirt

AF / Adverb Forms / be sure to use the appropriate form of each adverb in lieu of using commonly mistaken forms
  • W: anyways, firstly, nowheres
  • R: anyway, first, nowhere

CS / Comma Splice / don’t use only a comma to separate independent clauses (type of run-on)
  • W: This chart is handy, it makes grammar more approachable.
  • R: This chart is handy. It makes grammar more approachable.
  • R: This chart is handy; it makes grammar more approachable.*
  • R: This chart is handy, for it makes grammar more approachable.
*Comma splices usually happen because the author feels that the two sentences are too connected for a period. That is a good time to use the semicolon.
DM / Dangling Modifiers / occurs when object that is supposed to be modified is missing from the sentence (frequently happens with passive voice)
  • W: Hungry as a monster, the pie was eaten.
  • R: Hungry as a monster, Jimmy ate the pie.

MM / Misplaced Modifiers / occurs when the modifying phrase is placed adjacent to an object other than the one it is supposed to be modifying
  • W: The dog ran into the house covered in mud.
  • R: Covered in mud, the dog ran into the house.

OJ / Only/Just / adverbs such as only and just must be placed correctly—never before a verb--or they will change the meaning or be unclear
  • W: Dan only ran one mile.
  • R: Only Dan ran one mile.
  • R: Dan ran only one mile.

PA / Pronoun/ Antecedent / pronouns must agree in gender and number with the antecedent they replace
  • W: Each student must hand in their homework at the beginning of class.
  • R: Each student must hand in his or her homework at the beginning of class.
  • R: All students must hand in their homework at the beginning of class.
Watch out for singular pronouns like someone, anybody, no one, etc.
PE / Pronoun Errors / pay close attention to the role a pronoun plays in the sentence and use the form that is appropriate for the case
  • W: Rachel is smarter than me.
  • R: Rachel is smarter than I am.
  • W: I would like to meet the person who you like so much.
  • R: I would like to meet the person whom you like so much.

PP / Preposition Problems / a. never end a sentence with a preposition (be careful to recognize the difference between words acting as prepositions and adverbs)
  • W: My mom wanted to know whom I was going to the movie with.
  • R: My mom wanted to know with whom I was going to the movie.

b. the word “at” is never necessary with the word “where”
  • W: Where are my keys at?
  • R: Where are my keys?

PS / Parallel Structure / a. parallel thoughts must be expressed in similar (or parallel) grammatical terms
  • W: Zach is fluent in Chinese and has great knowledge about the culture.
  • R: Zach is fluent in Chinese and knowledgeable about the culture.

b. parallel phrases should include the entire prepositional phrase
  • W: Dan fell asleep in chemistry and calculus.
  • R: Dan fell asleep in chemistry and in calculus.

c. repeat the “that” in dependent clauses to make sentences parallel
  • W: I knew that I would get a five and I would get credit.
  • R: I knew that I would get a five and that I would get credit.

d. parallel phrases should include the entire infinitive
  • W: Anna loves to sing and dance.
  • R: Anna loves to sing and to dance.

e. parallel phrases stick to the same verb form
  • W: Malcolm was running through the halls, and he tripped.
  • R: Malcolm ran through the halls, and he tripped.

f. parallel phrases should follow both parts of correlatives (two-part conjunctions like both/and, either/or, and not only/but also)
  • W: You should bring neither your cell phone nor iPod to the AP test.
  • R: You should bring neither your cell phone nor your iPod to the AP test.

PV / Passive Voice / avoid writing sentences where the action is done to the subject instead of the subject doing the action unless this is stylistically beneficial (victims, unknown subject, etc.)
  • W: The worksheet was read by very few students in the class.
  • R: Very few students in the class read the worksheet.

RI / Redundancy Issues / avoid using words and phrases that are unnecessarily repetitive
  • W: free gift, end result
  • R: gift, result
  • W: The students were excited and eager to take the AP Lang test.
  • R: The students were eager to take the AP Lang test.

RO / Run-on Sentences / avoid sentences that contain two independent clauses without the proper separation
  • W: Julian heard that his group members were efficient he didn’t do any work.
  • R: Julian heard that his group members were efficient. He didn’t do any work.
  • R: Julian heard that his group members were efficient; he didn’t do any work.
  • R: Julian heard that his group members were efficient, so he didn’t do any work.
  • R: Because Julian heard that his group members were efficient, he didn’t do any work.

SF / Sentence Fragments / avoid sentences that lack subjects, verbs, or complete ideas
  • W: Cramming for hours hoping to get those last few devices memorized.
  • R: Josh crammed for hours, hoping to get those last few devices memorized.
  • R: Cramming for hours hoping to get those last few devices memorized, Josh fell asleep at his desk.

SI / Split Infinitives / remember that the infinitive form of a verb (ex: to drive) is considered to be one word, so do not place an adverb between the two parts
  • W: Alyssa planned to completely finish the AP test in six minutes.
  • R: Alyssa planned to finish the AP test completely in six minutes.

SP / Shifts in Pronouns / don’t shift your pronoun from the one that matches the antecedent to you (only use you when you are speaking directly to your audience)
  • W: Aimee loves video games where you feel as if you are driving the car.
  • R: Aimee loves video games where she feels as if she is driving the car.
  • R: Aimee loves video games where people feel as if they are driving the car.

SV / Subject/ Verb / make sure that your verb conjugations match the gender and number of the subject
  • W: A group of students walk down the hall.
  • R:A group of students walks down the hall.

VP / Vague Pronouns / only use pronouns when you are certain that their true meaning is clear (when in doubt, use the antecedent or a related noun)
  • W: This has been a trying experience, but I have learned much from it.
  • R: AP Language has been a trying experience, but I have learned much from the class.

VT / Verb Tense Shifts / if actions happen at the same time, they should use the same tense
  • W: We went to the store and will buy some groceries.
  • R: We went to the store and bought some groceries.

if actions happen at different times, they should use different tenses
  • W: After he studied for eight hours, he aced the rhetorical device test.
  • R: After he had studied for eight hours, he aced the rhetorical device test.

Usage
IU – Improper Usage / Accept vs. Except / Accept – v. to take or to agree to
Except – p. but or not including
  • Everyone except Cole accepted Peyton as the school’s new president.

Accompanied by vs. Accompanied with / Accompanied by – used with a person
Accompanied with – used with a thing
  • Accompanied by his friend Sara, Aaron ran down to the basement to avoid of the storm of strong winds accompanied with hail.

Adapted vs. Adopted / Adapted – v. to adjust to a new situation; to change
Adopted – v. to choose and accept without change
  • The team had to adapt to a tougher division, so they adopted a new philosophy.

Advice vs. Advise / Advice – n. guidance about how to handle a situation
Advise – v. to give advice to
  • Mrs. Cordell advised her students on how to take the test, but Joyce didn’t listen to one piece of advice; she got a five.

Affect vs. Effect vs. Effect / Affect – v. to alter or change (hint: a = action)
Effect – n. result or cause of change
Effect – v. to bring about
  • To effect change in the way teachers lecture, Mrs. Cordell is using special effects that are affecting the level of boredom in the class.

Aggravate vs. Irritate / Aggravate – to make worse (usually used with things)
Irritate – to annoy (usually used with people)
  • That sock may be aggravating the blister on your foot, but your constant whining about it is irritating me even more.

Agree to vs. Agree with / Agree to – use with a thing
Agree with – use with a person
  • Because Yasmin usually agrees with Jane, she agreed to the plan that Jane created.

All vs. All of / All – use with nouns
All of – use with pronouns
  • All of us will share in an experience that not all Payton students get to experience.

All together vs. Altogether / All together – all at one time (usually in terms of physical space)
Altogether – entirely, completely
  • It would be altogether too crowded for all AP Lang students to have class all together.

Allusion vs. Illusion / Allusion – indirect reference
Illusion – a hallucination or false perception
  • After performing a terrific illusion, the magician made an allusion to Houdini, whom he considered the best escape artist of all time.

Almost vs. Most / Almost – not quite; very nearly
Most – greatest, as in size or extent
  • W: Felicia got most every question right.
  • R: Felicia got almost every question right.