Module5: Curriculum development process
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In Module 2, 3 and 4, we discussed how philosophy, psychology, society and history events influencecurriculum. In Modules 5, 6, 7 and 8, we will examine the different phases of the curriculum development process. The first phase is curriculum planning followed bycurriculum design, curriculum implementation and curriculum evaluation.In this chapter we examine in general the curriculum development process by referring to three well-known curriculum development model; namely, the Tyler model, the Taba model and the Saylor & Alexander model. In the second part of the chapter, we focus on the first phase of the process namely,curriculum planning which involves establishing the goals and objectives of a curriculum based on the agreed educational philosophy.
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Curriculum is the foundation of the teaching-learning process whether it is a school, college, university or training organisation. The textbooks used, how teachers are trained, development of instructional plans, evaluation of students, preparation of guides for both students and teachers, and setting of standards, are all based on the curriculum. Thus without a curriculum no educational institution can function efficiently. Given such importance to curriculum a number of questions are raised. How is it developed? How is it organised? Who develops it? What are the principles in developing a curriculum? How do we know whether the curriculum is successful?
Curriculum is a plan for ordering and directing the teaching-learning experiences that students encounter in an educational institution.The process of providing the plan and keeping it running smoothly is known as curriculum development. Curriculum development is the more comprehensive term, which includes planning (determination of aims and goals), design, implementation and evaluation. Since curriculum development implies change and betterment, curriculum improvement is often used synonymously with curriculum development, though in some cases improvement is viewed as the result of development (Oliva, 1982). Curriculum development is a process that continuously strives to find newer, better and more efficient means to accomplish the task of educating the next generation.
What is a model? A model consist of interacting parts that serves as a guide or procedures for action. Some models are simple while others are very complex. In many instances, models are more similar that different and are often refinements or revisions ofearlier models. There are many models of curriculum development, but in this chapter, we will discuss three well-known models: the Tyler Model, the Taba Model and the Saylor & Alexander Model. Each of these models is named after their originator.
5.2.1 The Tyler Model
One of the best knowncurriculum models is The Tyler Model introduced in 1949 by Ralph Tyler in his classic book Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction in which he asked 4 questions:
- What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
- What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?
- How can these educational experiences be effectively organised?
- How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
In essence, Tyler’s questions represent the four-step sequence of (1) identifying purposes or objectives, (2) selecting the means for the attainment or achievement of these objectives i.e. what educational or teaching-learning experiences have to be provided for students, (3) organising these educational or teaching-learning experiences, and (4) evaluating the outcomes or what have students attained or achieved. By “purposes”, Tyler was referring to “objectives” and when developing curriculum objectives data should be gathered from three sources, namely; the subject area (eg. science, mathematics, geography, history), the learners (eg. economically disadvantaged, gifted, varying academic abilities) and society (eg. ethics, patriotism, national unity, environmental awareness, employment, market needs). Figure 5.1 presents Tyler’s model of curriculum development.
After identifying the objectives (which are the desired learning outcomes), the curriculum developer has to pass them through two screens: the philosophy screen and the psychology screen. Resulting from this are specific instructional objectives which state the kind of outcomes that are observableare measurable. The next step is the selection of educational experiences which enable the attainment of the stipulated objectives. The learning experiences have to take into account the previous experiences learners bring to a situation. The learning experiences will have to be selected based on what is known about human learning and human development.
Next, Tyler talked about the organisation and sequencing of these learning experiences. He emphasised that the experiences should be properly organised so as to enhance learning and suggested that ideas, concept, values and skills be used as organising elements woven into the curriculum. These elements would serve as organisers linking content within a particular subject (eg. history, economics, science) and also determine the method of instruction or delivery of content. [We will discuss curriculum design in more detail in module 6].
Finally, Tyler proposed that evaluation should be an important part of the curriculum development process. It was necessary for educators to know whether the selected learning experiences produced the intended results. For example, if the objective is to develop critical thinking among students, did the learning experiences selected achieve this objective. Through evaluation it will be possible to determine whether the curriculum was effective or ineffective. [We will discuss curriculum evaluation in more detail in Module 8].
There is no denying that Tyler’s thinking has greatly influenced the field of curriculum, especially curriculum development. The four questions that he raised had and still have great appeal because it is very reasonable and workable. Despite much criticism of the model as being too linear, that is, cause and effect, there is no denying that his thinking continues to be popular (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998).
Curriculum Planning
Curriculum Design Curriculum
Evaluation
Figure 5.1Tyler’s Curriculum Development Model
[Source: adapted from Allan C. Ornstein & Francis P. Hunkins, Curriculum: Foundations, Principles and Issues, (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1998), p.198.]
5.2.2 The Taba Model
Another approach to curriculum development was proposed by Hilda Taba in her book Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice published in 1962. She argued that there was a definite order in creating a curriculum. She believed that teachers, who teach the curriculum, should participate in developing it which led to the model being called the grass-roots approach. She noted 7 major steps to her grass-roots model in which teachers would have major input (see Figure 5.2). She was of the opinion that the Tyler model was more of an administrative model. The Tylermodel involved too much top-down decision making, The greater portion of curriculum decisions were made by administrators in the Central Office or the Ministry of Education.
Taba felt that a curriculum should be designed by the users of the programme. Teachers should begin the process by creating specific teaching-learning units for their students. She advocated that teachers take an inductive approach to curriculum development. This meant starting with the specifics and building toward a general design This was just the opposite to the more traditional deductive approach which starts with the general design and than working toward the specifics.
Teacher Input
Teacher
Input
Teacher Input
Figure 5.2 Taba’s Curriculum Development Model
Taba proposed 7 major steps to her grass-roots model in which teachers would have major input throughout the curriculum development process:
- Diagnosis of need: The teacher who is also the curriculum designer starts the process by identifying the needs of students for whom the curriculum is planned. For example, the majority of students are unable to think critically.
- Formulation of objectives: After the teacher has identified needs that require attention, he or she specifies objectives to be accomplished.
- Selection of content: The objectives selected or created suggest the subject matter or content of the curriculum. Not only should objectives and content match, but also the validity and significance of the content chosen needs to be determined. i.e. the relevancy and significance of content.
- Organisation of content: A teacher cannot just select content, but must organise it in some type of sequence, taking into consideration the maturity of learners, their academic achievement, and their interests.[We will discuss curriculum design in more detail in Module 6].
- Selection of learning experiences: Content must be presented to students and students must be engaged with the content. At this point, the teacher selects instructional methods that will involve the students with the content.
- Organisation of learning activities: Just as content must be sequenced and organised, so must the learning activities. Often, the sequence of the learning activities is determined by the content. But the teacher needs to keep in mind the particular students whom he or she will be teaching.
- Evaluation and means of evaluation: The curriculum planner must determine just what objectives have been accomplished. Evaluation procedures need to be designed to evaluate learning outcomes.[We will discuss curriculum evaluation in more detail in Module 8].
Taba’ model has much merit. However, some argue that teacher involvement throughout the process assumes that they have the expertise and, perhaps more importantly, the time to engage in such an extensive and intensive curricular activity. Teachers being involved in the early stages of curriculum development may not necessarily be an advantage as it will not necessarily guarantee an effective curriculum since it is a highly specialised process.
However, it cannot be denied that curriculum development requires the involvement of many parties at various stages of the process. It involves individuals from the Central Office or the Ministry of Education, district education officers, principals, teachers, community leaders, subject matter experts, academics and even students. Usually,curriculum developers at the Central Office are given the task of directing those actions that bring together various participants in curriculum development. Teachers may only be involved in implementing the curriculum while the main part of the curriculum is determined by the Ministry of Education, academics, content specialists and employers.
5.2.3 The Saylor and Alexander Model
GalenSaylor and William Alexander (1974) viewed curriculum development as consisting of four steps (Figure 5.3). According to them, curriculum is “a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities to achieve broad educational goals and related specific objectives for an identifiable population served by a single school centre” (p.24).
Bases (external variables)
Feedback
Figure 5.3 Saylor and Alexander’s Curriculum Development Model
a)Goals, Objectives and Domains: The model indicates that curriculum planners begin by specifying the major educational goals and specific objectives they wish to accomplish. Each major goal represents a curriculum domain and they advocate 4 major goals or domains: personal development, human relations, continued learning skills and specialisation. The goals, objectives and domains are selected after careful consideration of several external variables such asfindings from educational research, accreditation standards, views of community groups and others.
b)Curriculum Designing: Once the goals, objectives and domains have been established, planners move into the process of designing the curriculum. Here decision is made on the appropriate learning opportunities for each domain and how and when these opportunities will be provided. Will the curriculum be designed along the lines of academic disciplines, or according to student needs and interests or along themes? These are some of the questions that need to be answered at this stage of the development process [We will discuss curriculum design in more detail in Module 6].
c)Curriculum Implementation: After the designs have been created the next step is implementation of the designs by teachers. Based on the design of the curriculum plan teachers would specify instructional objectives and then select relevant teaching methods and strategies to achieve the desired learning outcomes among students in the classroom [We will discuss curriculum implementation in more detail in Module 7].
d)Evaluation: Finally, curriculum planner and teachers engage in evaluation. The model proposed that evaluation should be comprehensive using a variety of evaluation techniques. Evaluation should involve the total educational programme of the school and the curriculum plan, the effectiveness of instruction and the achievement of students. Through the evaluation process, curriculum planner and developers can determine whether or nor the goals of the school and the objectives of instruction have been met. [We will discuss curriculum evaluation in more detail in Module 8].
The three models just discussed reveal both similarities and differences. All models outline a sequence of steps to be taken in curriculum development. Interestingly, the Taba model emphasises the role of teachers in curriculum development while the Tyler model focuses on the two screens objectives have to pass through. However, you should keep in mind that models often are incomplete; they do not and cannot show every detail and aspect of the complicated curriculum process. To depict every aspect in detail of the curriculum development process would require an exceedingly complex and intricate model.
In looking at the three models we cannot say that any one model is superior to another model. Some curriculum planners have followed the Tyler model with considerable success. But this does not mean that the Tyler model represents the ultimate in models for curriculum development or that all educators are satisfied with it.
The cartoon at the beginning of this chapter shows the kinds of decisions that curriculum workers have to make in some education system somewhere in the world. Some decisions are relatively simple such as adding a course, deleting a course or making some minor changes to content. Other decisions are sweeping and far-reaching such as changing the levels of schooling from 6-3-2-2 (six years of primary or elementary school, three years of lower secondary, two years of upper secondary and two years pre-university or matriculation) to 6-4-2 (six years of primary or elementary school, four years of secondary and two years of pre-university or matriculation). How does one decide? All the three models ofcurriculum development emphasised the need from the onset to plan statements of purpose of the education system. What do you want students to be able to do after completing primary school or after completing secondary school?
In Chapter 2, we discussed the views of various Western and Eastern philosophers on what they thought the school should be and aim to achieve. In Chapter 3, we discussed various psychological explanations of human learning which provide guidelines as to what students will be able to achieve and how they should be taught. In Chapter 4, we examined what society demands of its education system providing some insight into what schools should aspire. Based on these sources, the curriculum planner will have to decide on an education philosophy from which the goals of education may be derived.
Goals can be written at several levels of generality involving many curriculum workers such as teachers, subject specialists, academics, principals, teacher trainers, administrators and others who may be engaged in curriculum efforts on several levels at the same time (see Figure 5.4). The model flows from a broad and wide educational philosophy to the more specific instructional objectives implemented at the classroom level.
5.4.1 Educational philosophy
The initial taskof curriculum planners is identification of an educational vision or philosophy which will form the basis of planning. It reflects the desires of the nation and the major theme paving the way for the future. The vision statement or philosophy provides guidelines for curriculum developers in organising and incorporating programmes and activities into the curriculum. The philosophic vision is usually derived through discussions with various persons in the country and also from reading the literature. Then it is reformulated in the light of realities to enable the vision to be achieved through a process of learning in schools rather remaining an ideal that is unachievable.
The educational philosophy of an educational system is a reflection of national policies. For example, use of one language of instruction to unite the different communities; free primary education to reduce drop-outs and a common national curriculum to reduce varying interpretations. The educational philosophy will also reflect national priorities such as the development aspects of the nation, socio-cultural needs of the people and levels of achievement of the children at different cycles. Development needs have to be identified in relation to the priorities. For example does the country want more graduates or should the emphasis be on basic education.
In relation to socio-cultural needs, the culture of peace, conflict resolutions etc. could emerge as important aspects that should be highlighted in the school curriculum. The needs of disabled persons and adults who have lost opportunities for learning have to be incorporated too. Opportunities for vocational and career education have to be provided in the curriculum. Therefore, vocational interests of students have to be assessed.
In addition, curriculum planners should not only study current best practices, customs, and beliefs about education in the local schools but should compare these to the educational research literature on best practices in teaching, learning, and curriculum design.Levels of achievements relate to understanding of concepts at different grades by children to enable them to complete the skills needed to move on to higher grades. These have to be identified in order to bring quality to learning and avoid wastage in the learning programmes.