Perceived Discrimination and Health Outcomes 131
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL: Studies included in meta-analysis.
Table 1
Characteristics of studies correlating perceived discrimination and mental health outcomes
Author, year, and document type / Number of respondents / Respondent type / Discrimination type / Health outcome measure / CorrelationAshburn-Nardo et al.,
2007
Manuscript / 316 / College students / Racial/ethnic
(MIBI)
Racial/ethnic
(RBRSQ)
Racial/ethnic
(Branscombe, 1999) / Well being (Rosenberg)
Well being (SWLS)
Psychological distress
Well being (Rosenberg)
Well being (SWLS)
Psychological distress
Well being (Rosenberg)
Well being (SWLS)
Psychological distress / -.07
-.06
-.17
-.03
+.07
-.12
-.02
-.06
-.11
Banks et al., 2006
Journal article / 570 / Community sample / Unfair treatment / Depression
Anxiety / -.15
-.20
Barnes & Lightsey, 2005
Journal article / 114 / College students / Racial/ethnic / Satisfaction with life
Perceived stress / +.01
-.22
Barrett et al., 1991
Journal article / 110 / Community Sample / Racial/ethnic / Depression
Self-efficacy
Self-esteem / -.29
+.21
+.21
Bierman, 2006
Journal article / 2581 / Community sample / Unfair treatment / Positive affect
Negative affect / -.13
-.18
Bird et al., 2004
Journal article / 110 / HIV+ Individuals / Racial/ethnic
SES-based / Depression
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Depression
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder / -.30
-.42
-.42
-.35
Bond et al., 2004
Journal article / 208 / Community Sample / Gender (gendered conditions of work)
Gender (individual)
Gender (Sexism in the workplace) / Psychological distress / -.17
-.17
-.16
Borrell et al., 2006
Journal article / 1016
706 / Community sample / Racial/ethnic
(Females only)
(Males only) / Depression
General mental health
Depression
General mental health / -.06
-.13
-.02
-.09
Bourguignon et al., 2006
Journal article / 269
178 / Community sample
Community sample / Racial/ethnic
(personal)
(group)
Racial/ethnic
(personal)
(group) / Self-esteem / -.07
+.12
-.06
+.15
Branscombe et al., 1999
Journal article / 139 / Part college, part community / Racial/ethnic
(future attribution)
Racial/ethnic
(past experience) / Well being
Collective well being (membership)
Collective well being (private)
Well being
Collective well being (membership)
Collective well being (private) / -.09
-.13
-.07
-.09
-.14
-.07
Brody et al., 2006
Journal article / 897 (Wave I)
779 (Wave II)
767 (Wave III) / National Dataset
(Family and Community Health Study, FACHS) / Racial/ethnic / Depression / -.25
.-29
-.17
Broman, 1997
Journal article / Not reported / Community sample / Racial/ethnic / Life satisfaction / -.17
Brown et al., 1998
Dissertation / 586
520 / Blacks only
Whites only / Racial/ethnic
(life events)
Racial/ethnic
(daily hassles)
Racial ethnic
(housing) / Depression
Psychological distress
Well being
Depression
Psychological distress
Well being
Depression
Psychological distress
Well being / -.11
-.10
-.17
-.26
-.27
-.23
+.07
+.05
+.09
Bynum et al., 2007
Journal article / 247 / College students / Racial/ethnic / Psychological distress
Psychological stress / -.31
-.17
Campbell 2000
Dissertation / 114 / Community sample / Gender
(lifetime)
(recent)
(appraisal) / Anxiety
Depression
Anxiety
Depression
Anxiety
Depression / -.61
-.62
-.64
-.60
-.48
-.47
Caputo 2003
Journal article / 969 / Community sample / Unfair treatment / General mental health / -.12
Cassidy et al., 2005
Journal article / 154
69
85 / Community sample
Subsample of gender (men)
Subsample of gender (women) / Racial/ethnic / Anxiety
Depression
Personal self-esteem
Private collective self esteem
Public collective self esteem
Membership collective self-esteem
Anxiety
Depression
Personal self esteem
Ethnic self esteem
Anxiety
Depression
Personal self esteem
Ethnic self esteem / -.24
-.21
-.20
-.18
-.39
-.18
-.25
-.28
-.33
-.30
-.29
-.14
-.06
-.01
Chávez & French, 2007
Journal article / 105 / College students / Racial/ethnic / Depression
Anxiety
Loss of Behavioral/Emotional Control
Anxiety / -.10
-.27
-.11
-.01
Clark 2000
Journal article / 39 / College Students / Racial/ethnic / Anxiety
Anger / -.15
-.21
Clark 2003
Journal article / 64 / College Students / Racial/ethnic / Anxiety on lab task
Stress on lab task / +.25
-.23
Combs et al., 2006
Journal article / 128 / College Students / Racial/ethnic / Paranoia (non-clinical)
Paranoia (clinical)
Anger
Depression / -.40
-.24
-.21
-.04
Corning 2002
Journal article / 100
125 / College students
College students / Gender
Gender / Self-esteem
Depression
Anxiety
Self-esteem
Depression
Anxiety / -.10
-.18
-.13
+.03
-.23
-.16
Dambrun 2007
Journal article / 141 / College students / Personal Gender
Discrimination
Group Gender
Discrimination / Psychological Distress / -.23
-.17
Dietch et al., 2003
Journal article / 327
5,483
8,311 / Community sample
US Navy personnel
US Navy personnel / Unfair treatment / Well-being
Job specific well-being
Emotional well-being
Physical well-being
Job specific well-being
Emotional well-being
Physical well-being / -.18
-.74
-.34
-.25
-.75
-.36
-.26
Dion et al., 1992
Journal article / 184
92
92 / Community sample
Low hardiness
High hardiness / Unfair treatment
Racial/ethnic
Unfair treatment
Racial/ethnic
Unfair treatment
Racial/ethnic / Psychological symptoms / -.20
-.16
-.38
-.14
-.04
-.1
Eccleston & Major, 2006
Journal article / 160 / College students / Unfair treatment
(attributions)
(globality)
(severity)
(stability)
(uncontrollability) / Self-esteem / +.01
-.10
-.15
+.04
+.09
Fischer & Shaw, 1999
Journal article / 119 / College Students / Racial/ethnic
(lifetime)
Racial/ethnic
(year) / General mental health
Self-esteem
General mental health
Self-esteem / -.10
+.00
-.14
-.13
-.03
Fischer & Holz, 2007
Journal article / 257 / College students / Gender – past year / Public collective self-esteem
Private collective self-esteem
Personal self-esteem
Depression
Anxiety / -.21
-.03
-.10
-.37
-.29
Fisher et al., 2000
Journal article / 177 / High school students / Racial – institutional
Racial – educational
Racial – peer / Self-esteem / -.03
-.20
-.24
Foster & Tsarfati, 2005
Journal article / 391
151 / College students / Gender / Anger
Anxiety
Anger
Life satisfaction
Performance state self-esteem
Social self-esteem / -.23
-.04
-.04
+.09
+.05
+.01
Foster et al., 2006
Journal article / 138 / College students / Group membership, chosen by participant / Self-esteem
Intergroup Anxiety / -.14
-.11
Frable et al., 1997
Journal article / 825 / Homosexual/bisexual men / Sexual orientation
(general stigma)
(stigma from family)
(stigma for other gay men) / Positive self-perceptions / -.18
-.26
-.23
Garstka et al., 2004
Journal article / 59
60 / College students
Older adults / Age discrimination / Self-esteem
Life satisfaction
Self-esteem
Life satisfaction / -.13
-.13
-.24
-.30
Gee, Spencer, Chen,
Yip & Takeuchi,
2007
Journal article / 2047 / National Datset
(National Latino and Asian American Study, NLAAS) / Unfair treatment / Any mental disorder
Anxiety disorder
Depressive disorder / -.30
-.36
-.24
Gibbons et al., 2004
Journal article / 897 / Community Sample / Racial/ethnic / Depression
Depression / -.09
-.30
Goldenhar et al, 1998
Journal article / 211 / Community Sample / Gender / Psychological distress / -.24
Greene et al., 2006
Journal article / 136 / Wave 2
Wave 3
Wave 4
Wave 5
Wave 6 / Racial/ethnic
(from adults)
Racial/ethnic
(from peers)
Racial/ethnic
(from adults)
Racial/ethnic
(from peers)
Racial/ethnic
(from adults)
Racial/ethnic
(from peers)
Racial/ethnic
(from adults)
Racial/ethnic
(from peers)
Racial/ethnic
(from adults)
Racial/ethnic
(from peers) / Self-esteem
Depression
Self-esteem
Depression
Self-esteem
Depression
Self-esteem
Depression
Self-esteem
Depression
Self-esteem
Depression
Self-esteem
Depression
Self-esteem
Depression
Self-esteem
Depression
Self-esteem
Depression / -.13
-.18
-.04
-.35
-.41
-.26
-.39
-.28
-.24
-.09
-.41
-.26
-.43
-.46
-.53
-.42
-.43
+.46
-.53
-.42
Harris et al., 2006
Journal article / 12,500 / Community Sample
(New Zealand Health Survey) / Racial- physical attack
Racial-verbal attack
Racial-any attack
Unfair treatement (health)
Unfair treatment (workplace)
Unfair treatment (housing)
Unfair treatment (any)
Overall discrimination (ever)
Overall discrimination (past 12 months) / Depression / -.28
-.20
-.21
-.36
-.20
-.12
-.22
-.21
-.25
Heckman 2003
Journal article / 275
221
53
196
78 / Community sample
Males only
Females only
Whites only
Blacks only / AIDS-related / Life satisfaction / -.27
-.19
-.51
-.31
-.21
Heckman et al., 2002
Journal article / 83 / HIV Infected Individuals / AIDS-related / Depression / -.22
Hocoy 1997
Dissertation / 348
139 / College Students / Racial/ethnic / Self-esteem
General mental health
Black esteem
Self-esteem
Chinese esteem / -.15
-.27
-.21
-.53
-.64
Hoyt et al.
Manuscript / 40
28
28 / Overall
Negative feedback
Positive feedback / Racial/ethnic / Well being / +.43
+.35
-.22
Huebner 2002
Dissertation / 361 / Men who have sex with men / Sexual orientation / Depression / -.03
Huebner et al., 2005
Journal article / 250 / Men who have sex with men / Sexual orientation / Depression / -.28
Jackson et al., 1996
Journal article / 623 / National Dataset
(National Survey of Black Americans, NSBA) / Racial/ethnic / Psychological distress
Happiness
Life satisfaction / -.02
-.10
-.18
Jackson & Mustillo,
2001
Journal article / 288 / National Dataset
(National Survey of Black Americans, NSBA) / Racial/ethnic
Gender / Psychological distress
Antisocial behavior
Well being
Psychological distress
Antisocial behavior
Well being / -.12
-.03
-.17
-.13
-.12
-.19
James et al., 1994
Journal article / 89 / Community Sample / Organizational discrimination / Self-esteem
Collective self-esteem / -.16
.10
Jasinskaja-Lahti &
Liebkind, 2007
Journal article / 2359 / Developing Theory and Methodology in the Study of Discrimination and Marginalization / Racial/ethnic / Well-being / -.11
Jaskinskaja-Lahti et al.,
2007
Journal article / 1783 / Developing Theory and Methodology in the Study of Discrimination and Marginalization / Racial/ethnic / Well-being / -.12
Jones et al., 2007
Journal article / 262 / College students / Racial/ethnic / Depression
Self-esteem / -.35
-.08
Karlsen & Nazroo, 2002
Journal article / 5196 / National Dataset
(Fourth National Survey of Ethnic Minorities, FNS) / Racial/ethnic
(verbal abuse)
(physical abuse)
(employer discrimination) / Depression
Psychosis / -.33
-.38
-.53
-.17
Kessler et al., 1999
Journal article / 3032 / National Dataset
(Midlife in the United States, MIDUS) / Not specified / Depression / -.22
King 1998
Dissertation / 110 / College students / Racial/ethnic
Race and Gender / Psychological stress
Psychological stress
Self-esteem / -.33
-.32
-.19
King 2003
Journal article / 112 / College Students / Racial/ethnic
Gender
Race and Gender / Psychological stress
State self-esteem
Performance self-esteem
Social self-esteem
Appearance self-esteem
Global self-esteem
Psychological stress
State self-esteem
Performance self-esteem
Social self-esteem
Appearance self-esteem
Global self-esteem
Psychological stress
State self-esteem
Performance self-esteem
Social self-esteem
Appearance self-esteem
Global self-esteem / -.33
-.11
-.06
-.16
+.01
-.09
-.18
-.14
-.12
-.12
-.05
-.08
-.32
-.20
-.16
-.22
-.07
-.12
King 2005
Journal article / 115 / College Students / Racial/ethnic
Race and Gender / Psychological stress / -.33
-.32
Klonoff et al., 2000
Journal article / 163 / Community sample / Gender / Somatization
Obsessive compulsive
Depression
Anxiety
Total symptoms / -.36
-.39
-.44
-.36
-.48
Kwate et al., 2003
Journal article / 71 / Community Sample / Racial/ethnic
(lifetime)
(year) / Psychological distress / -.40
-.31
Lam 2007
Journal article / 122 / College students / Racial/ethnic / Collective self-esteem
Depression
Anxiety / -.14
-.29
-.29
Landrine & Klonoff,
1996
Journal article / 153 / University faculty, staff, students / Racial/ethnic
(recent)
Racial/ethnic
(lifetime)
Racial/ethnic
(appraisal) / General mental health
Obsessive compulsive subscale
Interpersonal sensitivity subscale
Depression subscale
Anxiety
Somatization
General Mental health
Obsessive compulsive subscale
Interpersonal sensitivity subscale
Depression subscale
Anxiety
Somatization
General Mental health
Obsessive compulsive subscale
Interpersonal sensitivity subscale
Depression subscale
Anxiety
Somatization / -.31
-.19
-.39
-.29
-.34
-.42
-.32
-.21
-.37
-.30
-.33
-.39
-.38
-.32
-.43
-.33
-.37
-.41
Lee 2003
Journal article / 91
67 / College students
College students / Racial/ethnic
Racial/ethnic / Self-esteem
Depression
Self-esteem / +.04
-.46
-.49
Lee et al., 2004
Book Chapter / 67 / Community Sample / Racial/ethnic / Well being
General health / -.35
-.16
Lee 2005
Journal article / 84 / College students / Racial/ethnic / Depression
Self-esteem / -.28
-.36
Leonardelli & Tormala, 2003
Journal article / 132 / College students / Gender / Self-esteem / -.15
Li & Moore, 1998
Journal article / 1266 / Enrolled in state rehab services / Disability discrimination / Self-esteem / -.32
Littrell & Beck, 1999
Journal article / 91 / Homeless men / Racial/ethnic / Self-esteem
Depression
Anger / +.13
+.19
+.09
Loo et al., 2001
Journal article / 300 / Veterans / Racial/ethnic
(prejudice and stigmatization)
(bicultural identification and conflict)
(racist environment)
(total scale)
(prejudice and stigmatization)
(bicultural identification and conflict)
(racist environment)
(total scale) / Post traumatic stress disorder
General mental health / -.67
-.53
-.48
-.68
-.68
-.51
-.43
-.67
Major et al, 2007
Journal article / 191 / College students / Racial/ethnic / Self-esteem / -.04
Mak & Nesdale, 2001
Journal article / 372 / Community sample / Racial/ethnic / Psychological distress
Self-esteem
Ethnic self-esteem / -.13
-.01
+.05
McSwan 2000
Dissertation / 106 / Community sample / Gender
(lifetime)
(recent)
(appraised) / Depression / -.24
-.20
-.20
Moghaddam et al., 2002
Journal article / 104 / Community Sample / Racial/ethnic
(personal mistreatment due to race)
(general mistreatment of Indians)
(group membership causes disadvantaged status) / Anger
Anxiety
Depression
Anger
Anxiety
Depression
Anger
Anxiety
Depression / +.32
+.16
+.13
+.38
+.09
+.14
-.14
-.36
-.20
Moradi & Hassan, 2004
Journal article / 108 / Community Sample / Racial/ethnic / Self-esteem
Psychological distress / -.29
-.32
Moradi & Subich, 2002
Journal article / 187 / Faculty and staff at university / Lifetime gender
Recent gender / Psychological distress / -.32
-.43
Moradi & Subich, 2003
Journal article / 133 / Community sample / Racial/ethnic
Gender / Psychological distress
Psychological distress / -.28
-.35
Moradi & Subich, 2004
Journal article / 104 / College Students / Gender
(lifetime)
Gender
(recent)
Gender
(appraisal) / Psychological distress