People to Remember: Atkinson and Shiffrin, Ebbinghaus, Loftus

Tripken9 Memory SG

People to remember: Atkinson and Shiffrin, Ebbinghaus, Loftus

Atkinson/Shiffrin’s Model of Human Memory

Memory: the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.
Flashbulb Memory: a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.
Encoding: the processing of information into the memory system (i.e., getting information into memory).
Storage: the retention of the encoded information over time.
Retrieval: the process of getting information out of memory storage.

Information Processing

External events are first recorded in fleeting sensory memory. If we pay attention to this information, it will be encoded into short-term memory. With further encoding and rehearsal, the information will be recorded in long-term memory.
Sensory Memory: the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system (iconic = visual sensory memory; echoic = auditory sensory memory).
Short-term Memory: activated memory that holds a few items (7 + or - 2) briefly (about 30 seconds), such as the 7 digits of a telephone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.
Long-term Memory: the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.

ENCODING: GETTING INFO IN
Automatic Processing: effortless, unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.
Effortful Processing: encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
Rehearsal: the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage.

Ebbinghaus' Retention Curve: Ebbinghaus found that the more times he practiced a list of nonsense syllables on day 1, the fewer repetitions needed to relearn them on day 2. In other words, the more time we spend learning new information, the better we retain it. Spacing Effect: the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice (i.e., cramming doesn't work well).

Serial Position Effect: our tendency to recall best the first and last items in a list. More specifically:
Recency Effect: When asked to recall items immediately, we remember items at the end of the list best.
Primacy Effect: When asked to recall items at a later time, we remember items at the beginning of the list best.

How We Encode Information
Visual Encoding: the encoding of picture images.
Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sounds, especially the sound of words.
Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words.
*NOTE: Processing a word deeply--by its meaning (semantic encoding)--produces better recognition of it at a later time than does shallow processing of its appearance (visual encoding) or its sound (acoustic encoding).
Imagery: mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding.
Mnemonics: memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
Chunking: organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

STORAGE: RETAINING INFO

Types of Long-term Memory

Explicit
(Declarative)

• Requires conscious effort

• Involves the Hippocampus

/ Implicit
(Non-declarative)

• Does not require conscious effort
• Involves the Cerebellum

Semantic Memory / Episodic Memory / Procedural
Memory / Dispositional
Memory
Retention of facts and general knowledge
(it’s like an encyclopedia) / Retention of personal experiences
(it’s like a diary) / Retention of skills--motor and cognitive (e.g., riding a bike, driving a car, or reciting your "A B C’s") / Retention of conditioned associations learned through operant or classical conditioning (e.g., fearing snakes, feeling good when you earn an "A")

Sensory Memory
Iconic Memory: a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second (this phenomenon was studied by Sperling).
Echoic Memory: a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled with 3 or 4 seconds.

Short-term Memory: temporary memory storage. Most people can hold about 7, plus or minus 2, bit of information in STM. Depending on the type of info, it won't remain in STM much longer than about 10-30 seconds.
Long-term Memory: relatively permanent and limitless memory storehouse. Both serotonin and stress hormones have been found to be important in the formation of memories.

Long-term Potentiation (LTP): an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
1. Implicit Memory (non-declarative): recall of information that does not require conscious effort.
a) Procedural Memory: Memory for skills (cognitive and motor), such as riding a bicycle or saying the alphabet. These skills become almost automatic with time.
b) Dispositional Memory: all of the behaviors learned through classical and operant conditioning.

**Implicit memories are processed by the cerebellum.
2. Explicit Memory (declarative): memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare".
a) Episodic Memory: Memory of personal experiences; it is like your memory "diary".
b) Semantic Memory: Memory of facts and general knowledge; it is like your memory "encyclopedia".

**Explicit memories are processed by the hippocampus.

RETRIEVAL: GETTING INFO OUT

Recall: a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier (e.g., fill-in-the-blank test)
Recognition: a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned (e.g., multiple-choice test.
Relearning: a memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time.
Priming: the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.
Context Effects: memory is better for information that is retrieved in the same (or similar) context in which it was learned (e.g., words memorized underwater are best recalled underwater). Mood-congruent Memory: the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.

FORGETTING
1. We may not remember information simply because we never encoded it.
2. We also lose information simply due to the passage of time, this is called decay.
3. We also lose information due to interference.
a) Proactive Interference: the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.
b) Retroactive Interference: the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.
4. Through motivated forgetting, we may alter or rearrange our memories to make ourselves feel better (e.g., forgetting that you ate 10 cookies in a sitting while on a diet).

Repression: A form of motivated forgetting. In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.
Misinformation Effect: incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event (studied extensively by Elizabeth Loftus).
Source Amnesia: attributing something we have heard about, read about, or imagined to the wrong source (often believing we personally experienced it).
**Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.

Remember: overall, eyewitness memories are quite fallible...especially children's recollections of events.

Additionally, when "repressed" memories of abuse are "recovered" through the use of hypnosis, there is a high probability that the memories are false (false-memory syndrome)

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TripkenMemory Review GuideName:

Human memory is simplistically described as containing three stages or sections: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

A. Sensory memory: first stage, very brief, and limited by where we direct our attention.

Iconic memory -- through sense of sight, lasts less than one second, but without it our entire world would go "black" every time we blinked! George Sperling did a fascinating study on the nature and capacity of iconic memory (google it – it’s out there)

Echoic memory -- through our sense of hearing, lasts three to four seconds. It is responsible for the phenomenon whereby we "re-hear" some stimuli, such as the end of a spoken sentence. You may have experienced this: just as you say, "What did you say?" to a friend, you re-hear their last utterance and are able to answer your own question!

1. Short-term memory: some information that passes through our sensory stores makes its way into our short-term memory.

 This is our "working memory," where we keep information that we will be using shortly, like a phone number. STM holds only seven (plus or minus two) "bits" of information, and only for a very short period of time, without constant rehearsal.

 So, if you look up a phone number, you will be able to keep it in your STM until you dial it, but it will then be forgotten. But if it is an important number, or one that you need to dial often, you should transfer it into your long-term memory.

REHEARSAL – Repetitive nature of learning; but, it only works if ATTENTION PROCESSING occurs.

** This is the No. 1 mistake made by students when studying for a test. You repeat, but do not pay attention to the repetition. Your mind shuts off the “memorization” and simply is following a pattern.

Long-term memory (LTM): can hold an infinite amount of material for a lifetime.

 Really. There is no reason to believe that your brain will get "full" or that you might eventually lose any of your memories just because they (or you) get older.

 The key to LTM is organization; if you organize the material you want to remember, it will get into your LTM, and you will be able to retrieve it when you want it.

 Mere repetition is not enough to get material into your LTM; you must understand it, elaborate on it, connect it to some already learned material!

There are several types of long-term memory: procedural, declarative, semantic, and episodic (in your reading).

Types of Long-Term Memory

Declarative – memories of facts or events

Semantic memory (15th president? Atomic number of Uranium?)

Episodic memory (Remember on South Park when Cartman …)

Nondeclarative – ways to do things (organizational, systematic action)

a. procedural memory (Put two scoops of ice cream into a bowl; add hot fudge, whip cream, a cherry and sprinkles …)

Automatic encoding – transfer from ST to LT without conscious rehearsal

Effortful encoding – involves conscious rehearsal, association, relation to old information)

Maintenance rehearsal – simplistic repetition

Elaborative rehearsal – association to learned information

Which is more effective? C’mon, you know ...

Levels of Processing Theory – You get out of it what you put into it.

Ways to encode more efficiently –

Chunking – make it easier for yourself; learn one unit instead of seven.

Method of loci – (I don’t like this one, FWIW)

Peg method – rhyming, visualization and numbers

How’d they remember that? photographic memory – Adults only

Eidetic memory – Children’s version of photographic, but not permanent (5-8%)

Flashbulb memory – Drama (See page 255)

Recall v. Recognition – which one do you really use in school? Which one benefits you in the long-term?

Forgetting vs. Never learning – know the difference!!

A Final Look at Memory

How we Retrieve

Retreival Cues – Ways to “file” information

Visual codes –

Acoustic codes –

Failure to create cues leads to Tip of the Tongue phenomenon

State dependent memory – Your “state of mind” can affect what you remember

Context dependent memory – It’s better to return to a place to remember what happened there. Anyone want to study in my classroom Wednesday night?

How we Forget

Repression – Freud revisited. Why does it happen?

Anterograde Amnesia – Memories for events that occurred before the injury are spared, but events that occurred since the injury may be lost. May have good memory for childhood and for the years before the injury, but may remember little or nothing from the years since.

Retrograde Amnesia – a form of amnesia resulting from brain injury in which the individual loses memories for the time period just prior to the injury. This time period may stretch from a few minutes to several years, and typically it is worst for event which occurred just before the injury.

Infantile Amnesia – No, you don’t really remember walking for the first time.

Long Term Interference:

 Proactive – old info blocks the remembering of new information learned at a later date.

 Retroactive – new info blocks the remembering of old information learned at an earlier date.

Ebbinghaus' forgetting curve -- we tend to lose new information very quickly when we do not semantically encode it and it levels out over a period of time. Used three-letter nonsensical combinations to prove his theory on himself.

Societal Issues – Elizabeth Loftus’ constructed memory theories

Eyewitness testimony –

False memories – (Photos, pathological liars, brainwashing????)

___ 1. / The three steps in memory information processing are:
A) / input, processing, output. / C) / input, storage, retrieval.
B) / input, storage, output. / D) / encoding, storage, retrieval.
___ 2. / The process of getting information out of memory storage is called:
A) encoding. B) retrieval. C) rehearsal. D) storage.
___ 3. / Which of the following is the best example of a flashbulb memory?
A) / suddenly remembering to buy bread while standing in the checkout line at the grocery store
B) / recalling the name of someone from high school while looking at his or her yearbook snapshot
C) / remembering to make an important phone call
D) / remembering what you were doing on September 11, 2001, when terrorists crashed planes into the World Trade Center towers
___ 4. / The three-stage processing model of memory was proposed by:
A) / Atkinson and Shiffrin. / C) / Loftus and Palmer.
B) / Herman Ebbinghaus. / D) / George Sperling.
___ 5. / The first thing Karen did when she discovered that she had misplaced her keys was to re-create in her mind the day's events. That she had little difficulty in doing so illustrates:
A) / automatic processing. / C) / state-dependent memory.
B) / effortful processing. / D) / priming.
___ 6. / Information is maintained in short-term memory only briefly unless it is:
A) encoded. B) rehearsed. C) iconic or echoic. D) retrieved.
___ 7. / The spacing effect means that:
A) / distributed study yields better retention than cramming.
B) / retention is improved when encoding and retrieval are separated by no more than 1 hour.
C) / learning causes a reduction in the size of the synaptic gap between certain neurons.
D) / delaying retrieval until memory has consolidated improves recall.
___ 8. / According to the serial position effect, when recalling a list of words you should have the greatest difficulty with those:
A) / at the beginning of the list. / C) / at the end and in the middle of the list.
B) / at the end of the list. / D) / in the middle of the list.
___ 9. / Experimenters gave people a list of words to be recalled. When the participants were tested after a delay, the items that were best recalled were those:
A) / at the beginning of the list. / C) / at the end of the list.
B) / in the middle of the list. / D) / at the beginning and the end of the list.
___ 10. / Although you can't recall the answer to a question on your psychology midterm, you have a clear mental image of the textbook page on which it appears. Evidently, your ______encoding of the answer was ______.
A) semantic; automatic B) visual; automatic C) semantic; effortful D) visual; effortful
___ 11. / Darren was asked to memorize a list of letters that included v, q, y, and j. He later recalled these letters as e, u, i, and k, suggesting that the original letters had been encoded:
A) automatically. B) visually. C) semantically. D) acoustically.
___ 12. / Craik and Tulving had research participants process words visually, acoustically, or semantically. In a subsequent recall test, which type of processing resulted in the greatest retention?
A) / visual
B) / acoustic
C) / semantic
D) / Acoustic and semantic processing were equally beneficial
___ 13. / To help him remember the order of ingredients in difficult recipes, master chef Giulio often associates them with the route he walks to work each day. Giulio is using which mnemonic technique?
A) peg-word system B) acronyms C) the method of loci D) chunking
___ 14. / Memory techniques such as the method of loci, acronyms, and the peg-word system are called:
A) / consolidation devices. / C) / encoding strategies.
B) / imagery techniques. / D) / mnemonic devices.
___ 15. / One way to increase the amount of information in memory is to group it into larger, familiar units. This process is referred to as:
A) consolidating. B) organization. C) encoding. D) chunking.
___ 16. / Textbook chapters are often organized into ______in order to facilitate information processing.
A) mnemonic devices B) chunks C) hierarchies D) recognizable units
___ 17. / When Gordon Bower presented words grouped by category or in random order, recall was:
A) / the same for all words.
B) / better for the categorized words.
C) / better for the random words.
D) / improved when participants developed their own mnemonic devices.
___ 18. / Visual sensory memory is referred to as:
A) iconic memory. B) echoic memory. C) photomemory. D) semantic memory.
___ 19. / In Sperling's memory experiment, research participants were shown three rows of three letters, followed immediately by a low-, medium-, or high tone. The participants were able to report:
A) / all three rows with perfect accuracy. / C) / only the middle row of letters.
B) / only the top row of letters. / D) / any one of the three rows of letters.
___ 20. / Echoic memories fade after approximately:
A) 1 hour. B) 1 minute. C) 1 second. D) 3 to 4 seconds.
___ 21. / Our short-term memory span is approximately ______items.
A) 2 B) 5 C) 7 D) 10
___ 22. / Brenda has trouble remembering her new five-digit zip plus four-digit address code. What is the most likely explanation for the difficulty Brenda is having?
A) / Nine digits are at or above the upper limit of most people's short-term memory capacity.
B) / Nine digits are at or above the upper limit of most people's iconic memory capacity.
C) / The extra four digits cannot be organized into easily remembered chunks.
D) / Brenda evidently has an impaired implicit memory.
___ 23. / It is easier to recall information that has just been presented when the information:
A) / consists of random letters rather than words.
B) / is seen rather than heard.
C) / is heard rather than seen.
D) / is experienced in an unusual context.