Part I. the Emergence of Human Communities, to 500 BCE

Part I. The Emergence of Human Communities, to 500 BCE.

Chapter 1: From the Origins of Agriculture to the First River-Valley Civilizations

Guided Reading Questions:

1. What are the issues involved in using “civilization” as an organizing principle in world history? Explain the main indicators of civilization.

“Civilization” = an ambiguous term; “uncivilized” often misused.

Cities – administrative centers
Political system with defined territory
Specialized labor / roles, beyond agriculture
Status distinctions
Permanent records kept
Long-distance trade
Scientific / artistic advances

2. For the Paleolithic era discuss hunting / foraging, use of tools and fire, and existence in bands.

Paleolithic = Old Stone Age. The Stone Age associated with the development of humans

Stone Age peoples were foragers (hunters and food-gatherers).

Developed a variety of tools and learned to use fire – cooking
Clay cooking pots have been discovered

Lived in small bands. Highly mobile – had to move when food supply was exhausted.

3. Explain the Neolithic Revolution. What where the main changes? Where did this take place? How did the Neolithic Revolution relate to technological changes and affect gender relations?

8000 BCE Climate change  domestication of plants / animals in some places. More people moved from hunting / gathering to farming

Led to population growth

Shift from hunting / gathering and foraging to agriculture that developed during Stone Age; agriculture and new stone tools arose together.  “Neolithic” (New Stone Age)

8000– 2000 BCE. 8000 BCE = defining date for a new period in history
“Agricultural Revolutions” = might be a better phrase than Neolithic
Agriculture was main part of the change; occurred in various parts of the world
Domestication of animals for food occurred in some places too
Took place over 100s of generations
Transition to agriculture occurred first in Middle East and then in other regions

Women were main gatherers of wild plant food; probably played large role in transition to farming.
Heavy work  men

4. How did the Neolithic Revolution connect with the domestication of animals? How did animal domestication relate to agriculture?

Animal domestication also spread during these millennia.

2600 BCE, ox-drawn wooden plows used in central Europe – to till heavier soils
When cattle were yoked to plows, they became essential to grain production..Animal droppings used for fertilizer.
In the Americas, few species of wild animals became domesticated. Domesticated species from the Eastern Hemisphere could not spread to the Americas

5. Where did pastoralism predominate?

Arid parts of Africa and Central Asia

2500 BCE: Sahara maximum dryness  pastoralists replaced farmers, who migrated south.
Moving herds made pastoralists as mobile as foragers

6. Why did the Agricultural Revolutions occur? Connection to climate? Why did peoples in what parts of the world not take up farming?

Climate change / ecological crisis  shift from hunting / gathering to farming and pastoralism

6000 – 2000 BCE temperate lands warmed up – the era when people in many parts of the world adopted agriculture.
Possible shortages of wild foods:
Dryness or population growth
Grasslands  forests, reducing wild foods

Australia, Amerindians, southern Africa, northern Eurasia remained hunters / gathers.

Wild food remained abundant. People continued to rely on hunting and gathering.

7. Describe life in Neolithic communities. Spread of agriculture; society and religion; towns; examples of pottery, woven textiles, and metallurgy

Population increased & led to changes in social and cultural life.

Due to a possible ecological crisis, farmers / pastoralists may not have had a higher standard of living than foragers.

Farmers could store food (might not starve), but diet was less varied and nutritious than foragers.
But food surpluses might have given farming an advantage over foraging: population growth.

Organization was based on kinship and marriage – nuclear families / clans

Could be matrilineal or patrilineal

Religion reflected connection to nature.

Pastoralists – tended to worship a sky god
Farmers – tended to worship mother earth god

“Neolithic Goddess.”

Found modern-day Turkey – many versions

Pregnant / supported by twin leopards
Probably represented fertility and power over nature

In some areas farming villages grew into densely populated towns with trade and craft specialization.

Bigger dwellings / ceremonial buildings
Artisans developed in certain towns
Fine pottery
Woolen cloth
Metalworking
Late Neolithic period
Copper, lead, silver, gold  easy to work. Largely ceremonial. Did not replace stone tools yet. Symbols of status and power.

8. Examine carefully the maps on pages 10 and 14. Summarize the main ideas of the maps.

Agricultural Revolution developed in many different parts of the world starting about 8000 BCE

Pastoralism / hunting dominated in land less suited for farming

Earliest complex societies arose in river valleys, starting in 4th millennium BCE.

Mesopotamia

9. Describe the geography setting and location of Mesopotamia.

Mesopotamia – “Land between the rivers” (Tigris and Euphrates). Rivers central to civilization in region.

Arid region – River flooding was unpredictable.

On map on p. 17, locate:

Mesopotamia
“Fertile Crescent,”
Persian Gulf,
Arabian Desert
Geography made invasion easy

10. Explain the basic features of Mesopotamian culture, state, economy, and social structure. Note: the material is not presented in the section according to these themes. As you read, think about how information might be reorganized to fit into these three categories.

A. Culture

Sumerians – 5000 – 4000 BCE

Southern Mesopotamia – created framework for Mesopotamian culture:

Temples for deities in cities

Gods were feared; reflected forces of nature. Needed appeasement

Ziggurat – most visible part of temple.

Scientific / technological development:

Writing – cuneiform. Many symbols to learn; few were literate
Wheeled carts
Bronze – weapons and tools. Metals had to be imported
Bronze Age – bronze became primary metal for tools
Discoveries: Mathematics & astronomy

B. State

Villages and cities predominated in Mesopotamia. City-states mostly evolved from villages.

Irrigation systems – canals & dams. Examples of projects that required coordinated efforts – large #s of organized people.

Government institutions

Temple and king’s palace – two main centers of power
Leading priests played large political and economic roles.
Gradually became dependent on the king
King
Bureaucracy of administrators developed under king
Babylon – Largest and most important city in Mesopotamia
Hammurabi was one of most famous Babylonian kings
Created Law Code of Hammurabi: severe punishments
Powerful states – armies. 2,000 BCE – horses appeared in western Asia  chariots.

C. Economy

There was a need for raw materials in Mesopotamia
Prompted conquest and long-distance trade
Merchants were mainly employed by priests and kings

D. Social Structure

Urban civilizations (cities) develop social classes: Rise of cities, specialization of labor, centralized power, written records  set some above others.

Three main social classes in Babylonia – reflected in Hammurabi’s Law Code

1) Free land owners: Royalty, priests, merchants, some artisans….

2) Dependent farmers / dependent artisans,

3) Slaves – captives / debtors. Slavery not as widespread as it would be in Greece / Rome

Hammurabi’s Law Code: penalties varied with social class. Lowest got most severe punishments.

Gender –

Women may have lost standing with shift from hunting / gathering to agriculture

Women had provided food from gathering activities – highly valued work.
Mesopotamia – agriculture require heavy, physical work; surplus food allowed families to have more children.

Status of women declined over time – laws came to favor rights of husbands.

Egypt

11. Describe the geography and climate of the Nile River Valley region.

Located at intersection of Africa and Asia
Natural isolation – surrounding deserts and marshy seacoast -- protected
Material self-sufficiency – natural resources
Trade and communication
“Upper” and “Lower” Egypt
Regularity of flooding & agriculture

Due to climate changes in the Sahara  migration to the Nile Valley

12. Explain the basic features of Egyptianculture, state, economy, and social structure.

A. Culture

Deities connected with nature – polytheism (belief in many gods)

Pharaoh – divine; chief priest of Egypt

Much wealth spent on religion / building temples

Strong belief in afterlife

Book of the Dead – contained rituals to ensure safe passage
Mummification

Advances in medicine, math, engineering, astronomy

B. State

Unified early in history

Dynasties developed – centralized political power  impressive cultural achievements

Pharaoh (King) – central figure of state. Believed to be divine. Absolute power.

Pyramids – royal tombs. Construction with stone tools; bronze was expensive and rare.
Many available workers.
Bureaucrats ran country / collected taxes
Administrators were literate – hieroglyphicsrecord keeping
System of pictorial symbols
Used for record keeping and inscriptions
Literacy confined to small group of scribes and administrators – long study required to master hieroglyphics
Also used for Egyptian literature
papyrus (writing material)

Gov’t had a monopoly over long-distance trade & controlled key sectors of economy
Lack many real cities – were extensions of palace and central government
Towns and cities did exist, but most people lived in villages and were farmers.

C. Economy

Nile River  trade, communication, agriculture

D. Social Structure

No formal class structure emerged, but there were differences in wealth

King / high-ranking officials
Lower-level officials, priests, professionals, wealthy farmers
Peasants – vast majority of people

Women were subordinate to men, but

Love poetry shows lovers addressing each other as equals / emotions of romantic love
Law – could own property, inherit from parents
Some females priests and female deities

13. Create a chart comparing the culture, state, economy, and social structure of Mesopotamia and Egypt

Mesopotamia / Egypt
Culture
Environment
Technology
Religion / Open to migration and invasion; lacked natural resources
Writing: Cuneiform; scribes
Stone and bronze tools used – metals were imported. Metals not generally available – reserved for the elite.
Knowledge about metallurgy, mathematics, astronomy, & engineering.
Monumental building projects: Ziggurats
Religion  Temple worship key; ziggurats. Polytheistic (belief in many gods)

Gods embodied natural forces.
Tried to appease harsh deities so that they would not bring destruction.
Belief in afterlife but not necessarily a positive life to come. Reflected in Epic of Gilgamesh.

/ Natural isolation; had natural resources  unique culture; little to do with other civilizations. Settlers did periodically arrive, though.
Writing: Hieroglyphics; papyrus; literature – many genres.
Stone tools for construction – bronze was expensive and rare. Metals not generally available – reserved for the elite.
Knowledge about medicine, mathematics, astronomy, & engineering.
Monumental building projects: Pyramids
Religion  Divine monarch. Much wealth  religion. Polytheistic (belief in many gods).

Gods embodied natural forces.
Trusted deities that they believed brought order and prosperity
Belief in afterlife – a possible blessed existence for the righteous.
Mummification; pyramids. Egyptian Book of the Dead.

State
Environment
Rulers
Unification / Developed in Fertile Crescent, along Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Rainfall insufficient for agriculture; depended on river for irrigation.
Tigris and Euphrates  unpredictable floods; source of concern  need for irrigation. State had to organize this.
Kings & bureaucracy
Not unified early in history
A land of cities / Developed along Nile River Valley. Rainfall insufficient for agriculture; depended on river for irrigation.
Nile flooded predictably for agriculture. Eagerly anticipated; not destruction with flooding.
Pharaoh – considered divine  central to the state.
Administrators were literate – record keeping.
Unified early in history
Economy / Agriculture
Trade funded by priests and kings, but controlled by merchants / Agriculture
Gov’t  monopoly over key sections of economy & controlled long-distance trade
Social Structure
Social hierarchy
Impact of urbanization on social structure
Women / 1. Free land-owners: King, priests, merchants….

Kings not normally considered divine, but still dominated religious institutions.

2. Dependent farmers / artisans
3. Slaves
A more urban society than Egypt and thus more socially stratified: sharp social divisions – seen in class-based penalties in Law Code of Hammurabi
Women had fewer rights than in Egypt  loss of rights in 2nd millennium

May have stemmed from a more urban and more social stratification.

/ Pharaoh – claimed divine origins & central to welfare of entire country & held religious authority over priests.
Influential / wealthy priests; Dependent peasants
Elite classes  wealth for expensive mummification
A less urban and less stratified society than Mesopotamia.
Women had more rights and social freedoms than in Mesopotamia

Shown in writing and pictures

Indus Valley Civilization

14. Describe the geography and environment in which the Indus Valley Civilization developed.

Civilization developed along Indus River, modern-day Pakistan

River and monsoon rain flooding  two crops a year.

15. Explain the basic features of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro’s culture, state, economy, and social structure (Indus Valley Civilization)

A. Culture

Metals widely available – more than in Mesopotamia  used for tools / every day items and not just jewelry / ornamentation
Writing system

B. State

Many sites existed; best know two were the cities Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro
Advanced cities: 2600-1900 BCE
Uniform construction, standardized street girds, drainpipes for wastewater, irrigation, large public buildings  suggest a strong central government

C. Economy

Widespread trading contacts
Access to metals and other resources from Iran & Afghanistan, and India
Within Indus Valley, goods moved on rivers
Long-distance trade: Indus Valley to Mesopotamia
Indus Valley merchants served as middlemen, shipping goods to the Persian Gulf

D. Social Structure

Possible hereditary occupations with priests predominating

Cities were abandoned around 1900 BCE

Ecological disaster / climate change or natural disasters – might possibly have brought civilization to an end.

Chapter 2: New Civilizations in the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, 2200-250 BCE

Early China, 2000-221 BCE

Guided Reading Questions:

1. Describe the environment / geography in which the Shang Dynasty developed. How did environment / geography affect this civilization?

8000 BCE – first Neolithic cultures. Yellow River (Huang He) – agriculture

China is relatively isolated: Mountains, deserts, Pacific Ocean

Trade did occur with India and Central Asia

Mountains make overland travel difficult

Yellow and Yangzi Rivers allowed for east-west travel

Different environment in north and south China, and different land use, crops, organization of labor

Monsoons bring rainfall to south in summer  agriculture; rainfall less regular in north
Civilization developed in north, along Yellow River (Huang He) – irrigation. Demanding environment – unpredictable river floods 
Technologies (canals / irrigation), political traditions, religious views that became hallmarks of Chinese civilization
Most productive land in eastern river valleys; natural resource in North China Plain
Grains grew in the north; rice in the south
Agriculture required coordinated efforts of large numbers of people

2. Explain the basic features of Shang culture, state, and social structure.

A. Culture

Bronze Age: 2000 BCE – 1000 years after Middle East

Bronze = sign of status / authority; Bronze vessels used for offerings to ancestors’ spirits

Written records – oracle bones. Used to obtain information from ancestors / gods. Mainly gave information about king, court, and religion

Shang writing system (found on oracle bones) = ancestor of much of modern-day writing systems in East Asia

B. State

King was seen as the key link between Heaven and earth. Had access to divine power to bring prosperity and protection – this belief lasted throughout much of Chinese history  an effective rationale for authoritarian rule.

Cities: Centers of politics / nobility / religion: Palaces, administrative buildings, shrines
Commoners lived in villages outside cities

C. Social Structure

King

Warrior elite: bronze weapons, chariots (from Western Asia)

Peasants

Slaves

3. Read “Divination in Ancient Societies,” pages 44-45. Write down the main ideas (skip the Celts)

Many ancient peoples believe gods controlled nature / shaped destinies. People developed divination techniques to learn the will of the gods.

Shang elite – oracle bones
Mesopotamia – sacrificed animal organs; astrology
Greeks – Oracles

This was a form of technology known only to a class of experts  their special knowledge gave them high status in society.

4. The Zhou Dynasty – Explain the following:

A. Mandate of Heaven,

B. Metallurgy advances made during the end of the Zhou.

Zhou = Followed Shang Dynasty

Mandate of Heaven

Monarch was seen as the “Son of Heaven” – the right (mandate) to rule came from Heaven (the gods)
Prosperous times were seen as evidence that Heaven was giving the king a mandate to rule
Troubled times (famine, floods, invasion) were seen as evidence that Heaven no longer supported the king. Used as a justification for rebellion
The concept, which connected religion and politics, served as the foundation of Chinese political thought for 3000 years.

Technological advances during the end of the Zhou

Iron began to replace bronze  first steel produced in world

5. Explain the main features of Confucianism and Daoism.

Last centuries of the Zhou – political fragmentation and warfare, but also great cultural achievements.

Confucianism and Daoism were the two most influential philosophies in Chinese civilization.

Confucianism

Confucius – a philosopher; not a religious teacher or priest. Not concerned with religion.
Achieve harmony in society through rituals, proper behavior, proper interactions with others
Goal was to make society function smoothly at every level
A hierarchy of relationships
Children expected to be “filial” – respectful of parents (called “filial piety”)
Confucianism became dominant political philosophy and the core of the educational system for government officials

Daoism