Paraphrased and Quoted in Non Parallel Form

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Hell from

The History of Hell

…by Alice K. Turner

(paraphrased and quoted in non parallel form)

The Great Below (5-11)

archetypal elements: a mountain barrier, a river, a boat and boatman, a bridge, gates and guardians, an important tree
“harrowing of hell” or the “descent motif”: when living person descends voluntarily to brave the dangers of the underworld on a quest that may range from the deeply serious to the seriously misguided

The Egyptian Book of the Dead (12-15)

early stories (Sumerian and Mesopotamian) don’t differentiate between privileged or blessed souls versus sinners or common folk
some ancient stories depict heroes fighting monsters or speaking to their ancestors
other geographical areas (like Egypt) led to a bodily existence after death
idea of judgment also comes from Egypt or Persia; the dead who survived annihilation were often subject to horrendous sudden perils

Zoroastrianism (16-19)

had enormous influence on Christian concepts of Hell
dualistic religion where the divine force of Good lives above while the Evil Spirit dwells in darkness of Hell under the earth, sending out devils to torment the world
law, order, and light oppose darkness, filth, and death; the object of conflict is the soul of man

Classical Hades (20-29)

Greek religion was not dualistic; various versions
most stories of descent to Hades not very religious (Theseus, Heracles, etc.); not always an after death experience
artists first begin influencing the history of Hell

Platonic Hell (30-33)

souls are eternal and with good behavior will make their way to a good and wise God; wicked souls are imprisoned in other bodies according to the life they previously lived (a drunkard in a donkey’s, a thug in a wolf’s)
Tartarus is in center of earth where those who have committed the worst deeds are hurled (often public figures are found here)
aspects of reincarnation are also incorporated

The Roman Empire (34-39)

Roman writer Virgil: The Aeneid modeled after Homer and Plato; Aeneas goes to the underworld to seek advice from dead father; Hell is under Italy; macabre effects (howling dogs, clammy caves, noxious fumes, earthquakes, etc.)
Limbo appears for the first time
first thoroughly graphic description
heavily influenced early guidelines for Christian cosmology (including ideas of Augustine)
clear influence on Dante

Sheol (40-45)

Old Testament: Jews did not have a relationship with the dead, did not worship them, did not sacrifice to them, did not visit them, nor did they anticipate any kind of afterlife
some changes by 1st century A.D.; description in Second Enoch of fire and ice where those who break any of the Ten Commandments go

Gnosticism (46-48)

hell on earth; Jesus descended to hell
world, flesh, devil closely related

Manichaeism (49-51)

dualistic system drawing from Zoroastrianism
opposing spirits battle for control of the world; unrepentant sinners at Jesus’ Second Coming will fall into the flames that will consume the entire world
Augustine was a Manichaen for nine years before becoming a Christian

The Early Christians (52-65)

early Christianity: no specific description of hell
sinners were not admitted to kingdom of God (Paul)
some disciples did warn of future punishments, but not of flames
Mark does speak once of eternal damnation and fire; Matthew uses Mark’s material and attaches warnings to sinners about perdition which becomes basis of Christian proof of Hell’s existence; Luke’s story of Lazarus (the rich man) creates parable of Hell and later literal interpretations; story leads to problem of where to place Abraham (a Jew) and subsequent answer of Limbo
Christian Limbo: region borrowed from Latin pagans; three limbos (one for un-baptized babies, one for pre-Christian patriarchs, one for pre-Christian pagans
Book of Revelation: thought to be written in latter part of 1st century in protest against Roman dominion
similar in form to Jewish apocalyptic literature
represents conflict between good and evil
scene is the end of the world; at Judgment Day, Death and Hades are flung into the lake of fire as are those judged unworthy
red dragon eventually interpreted as supernatural beasts of Hebrew Bible; finally linked to serpent of old responsible for fall of Adam and Eve
The Fall: Christianity magnifies significance of original act of disobedience and relationship with concepts of redemption and salvation
reflects Adam’s fall and Lucifer’s fall
Satan: means adversary or opponent in Hebrew; myth of Satan grows by end of 1st century A.D.; Last Judgment identifies God’s adversary as Satan
synthesis of various elements begins to take place in Middle Ages: beast, dragon, Death, and Hades would all merge into Satan

The Descent into Hell (66-70)

account of Jesus’ descent into Hell between Good Friday and Easter Sunday is integral to Christian concept of life, death, resurrection, and ascension
many variations to the story exist and a variety of references are found in early Christian writings
one of most well known is dated from the 5th century and focuses on Christ’s Harrowing of Hell: technically, he harrows Limbo (a dark underground prison; there he defeats Satan and his demons; Death and Hades are personified)
later versions would omit personification and/or the entire harrowing; even so, the story remained in the minds of popes and theologians (including Augustine)
New Testament texts also spoke of the Antichrist (Satan’s counterpart to Christ); many interpretations as to who that was or would be; prior to the Reformation, some believed the Antichrist to be the papacy itself; artists have portrayed the Antichrist in Hell as Satan’s son

The Last Judgment (71-82)

the most complex Christian narrative regarding Hell; apocalyptic text regarding the day when justice will finally be done
Old Testament apocalyptic books distinguish this day as a day of judgment for the living; New Testament accounts perceive it to be a day of judgment for the dead
again, many interpretations of Christian conception of the Last Day
the early Western Church took the loosely defined position of Augustine: two judgments (one immediately after death and one to follow the resurrection); relates to Limbo theories
Judgment Day also meant to settle the fate of fallen angels
idea of death and resurrection through salvation inspired interest and speculation into the opposite side of thought: who would be damned

Apocalyptic Tours of Hell (83-88)

early apocalyptic literature featured or written by apostles, saints, and revered Old Testament figures
Apocalypse of Peter: earliest, dates from mid-second century; no guide for tour of Hell except Christ; has vengeful and morbid tone; sinners are often those who worship pagan idols and images, reflecting early Christian competition with other religions; no Satan, just stern angels; vengeance for betrayal emphasized; punishments include blinding with fire, mangling by wild beasts, being torn to pieces; also portrayed lurid punishments for sinful sexual behavior; written at a time when Roman threats and methods of torture were well-known
Apocalypse of Paul: as rivers of fire in addition to pits of fire, snow, and blood; even more worms, beasts, and avenging angels with instruments of torture than Peter; Paul weeps for the fate of sinners, though he is chided for doing so
Gospel of Bartholomew: 3rd century apocalypse; unusual account that features a conversation with a beast whose name used to be Satan; the beast tells the story of how he was the first angel created, how he refused to worship Adam and fell with his followers, how he wandered to and fro in the world, how he seduced Eve, how he punishes souls of men and is punished himself, and how he sends his demons out into the world to tempt; also contains a harrowing account from Jesus’ point of view

The Middle Ages (89-113)

richest period in the history of Hell (millennium or middle period between fall of Rome and Renaissance)
only one major figure (John Scotus Erigena, 9th century) doubted a literal Hell and was accused of heresy
Peter Lombard and Thomas Aquinas would follow Augustine in insisting on a real fiery Hell with physical torments
higher theology would have less influence on concepts of Hell than those of a more popular and common bent
vernacular sermons of hellfire would draw wide audiences
mystery plays meant to teach the Bible to parishioners would broaden scenes to include a variety of frightful images of Hell; writers would borrow images from the underworld regions of classical and Norse mythology as well as from folklore, feudal fantasy, fairylands, and poetry
vision literature would evolve into a mass-market genre depicting someone being taken by a supernatural guide to the infernal regions, then (sometimes) to Purgatory, and then to Heaven
collapse of unified civil authority under the Roman Empire gave the Church an opportunity to take charge, especially under Pope Gregory (590) who encouraged missionaries to tolerate heathen superstitions; he heard visionary stories and concluded generally that visions of the afterlife must occur sometimes for the benefit of those who need to try harder not to sin
The Venerable Bede (7th century English monk known for his Ecclesiastical History of England) recorded two versions of Hell: the first depicts angels over a dark valley and fires in the air where liars, the covetous, creators of strife and discord, and the pitiless and fraudulent were punished; the second follows the story of a householder who is led by an angel through a valley with flames spewing from one side and hail and snow from the other, deformed spirits tormented on both sides; at the far end of the valley, globes of black flame full of human souls rise out of a stinking pit and fall back again
The Vision of Tundal (1149): written by an Irish monk and was first book translated into Old Norse after the Bible; had more scenery, more monsters than most other stories; story follows a likable scoundrel of a knight who while in a coma experience various elements of Hell; some of descriptions include: murders sizzling over an iron grate, a mountain with fire on one side and ice on the other, fiends with iron hooks and forks punishing unbelievers and heretics, sinners being bitten by frenzied lions, mad dogs, and serpents, thieves and robbers crossing bridges studded with nails, a great bird with an iron beak that eats unchaste nuns and priest, defecating them into a frozen lake where they give birth to serpents; story eventually moves to purgatorial area in a meadow and then Heaven
other stories and visions have a more political slant or literary influence: Dante may have read Vision of Alberic who tells a harrowing story with an emphasis on the fate of children being purged in flaming gas, a frozen valley, a thorny wood, serpents, a red hot ladder, a lake of blood, a lake of fire, a river of fire, and a narrow bridge amongst others
Christian missionaries sent north and west often subsumed other beliefs rather than combating them
heavenly hierarchies often portrayed in the feudal manner; betrayal was the great sin of feudalism, betrayal to Christian faith included; thus, the popular term for Muslims was “infidels,” or the unfaithful
Hell was a weapon for the clergy; only the clergy could administer the rites of baptism and absolution that could save a soul; sermons thundered reminders of darkness and fire and stench and demons and serpents

Mystery Plays (114-125)

used to teach illiterate audiences about the Bible
dramatic tradition would grow in inventiveness and scope from 10th to 16th centuries
would eventually be produced by tradesmen’s guilds; boisterous Hell scenes provided comic relief as much as anything else; a favorite part of plays
later medieval plays: miracle dramas of lives and deaths of saints and martyrs; morality plays or dramatized allegories which added the figure of Death to that of Satan and personified the Seven Deadly Sins that dwelt in Hell (Pride, Envy, Gluttony, Anger, Lust, Avarice, and Sloth)
Church’s adoption of doctrine of Purgatory lightened the load and fears of Hell

Purgatory (126-132)

new doctrine dates back to a papal letter of 1253 and then confirmed in the Catechism of the Council of Trent which says “there is a purgatorial fire in which the souls of the pious are purified by a temporary punishment so that an entrance may be opened for them into the eternal country in which nothing stained can enter”
Purgatory adopted in part as reaction to heresy of more free thinking individuals (leading later to Protestantism); powerful propaganda tool that offered a chance to the masses excluded from Heaven
theologically, offered response to problem of what to do with unbaptized babies and patriarchs of Old Testament
explained how ghosts walked
Virgin Mary would assume role of Queen of Purgatory
Purgatory gave the Church new powers extended beyond the grave
thought to be a temporary Hell that could burn away the evil of sin
Protestant reformers would reject concept

Dante’s Inferno (133-144)

architectural elements have fascinated readers; illustrators have presented characters, monsters, underground embankments, moats, castles, paved trenches, etc.
Dante was concerned with history, Florentine politics, corruption in the clergy, moral position of his contemporaries, and with the state of his own psyche
put together philosophic, mythic, Orphic, demonic, repulsive, fantastic, allegorical, grotesque, comic, and psychological themes
views were orthodox, but imagination was not
Dante’s version solved problem for artists as to how to portray Purgatory; his Hell fascinated artists
Dante’s physical and ethical universe: a round ball pierced in the northern hemisphere to its center by a hole in the shape of an irregular cone or funnel; center of hole is Jerusalem; hole formed by weight and force of Lucifer and angels striking earth as they fell from Heaven; displaced matter forced upward and backward along the tunnel Dante and Virgil use to escape which forms the mountain of Purgatory that rises in an inverted cone in the southern hemisphere; on top of Purgatory is Earthly Paradise
entire underground cone is terraced in descending ledges or circles of narrowing size down the well or pit at the center of the earth
history of Hell entered new stage: vision literature dies off; changes popular perception of Hell by presenting it in fictional or allegorical terms; invited readers to join him in a story
though not necessarily his intention, he made it easier for intellectuals of the Renaissance and Enlightenment to reject literal reality of Hell
post-Freudians would point to the allegory of the individual experiencing “the dark night of the soul” before a spiritual reemergence into starlight
as in modern psychoanalysis, Dante explores with his guide the deep sources of his unhappiness and inability to follow the true path, followed by his endurance of Purgatory where he examines and challenges his behavior before achieving relative paradise of mental health