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Human Origins (ARC2127,ARC3127)
Classes are on Tuesdays, 11-1, The Lab, The Forum
Date / No / TopicTuesday, 23rd September / 1 / Humans, apes, and our primate family: what’s a primate?; what’s an ape? ; and what’s a human?
Tuesday, 30th September / 2 / How did we get to where we are now? – major, minor (and some surprising) trends in human evolution
Tuesday, 7th October / 3 / 3.0 – 1.8 Ma: the earliest tool-makers and the earliest indications of or own genus Homo
Tuesday, 14th October / 4 / Out of Africa 1 – the earliest hominin occupation of Eurasia, 1.8 – 1.0 Ma
Tuesday, 21sth October,
BEIJING / 5 / Stone tools and their importance (LH)
Tuesday, 28th October / 6 / Pleistocene climate: what we know, and why it’s important
Tuesday, 4th November / 7 / 1.0 Ma – 800ka: life in the Pleistocene before Homo sapiens
Tuesday, 11th November,
TURKEY / 8 / Palaeolithic art: a visual if puzzling feast (LH)
Tuesday, 18th November / 9 / Out of Africa 2 – the origin and early dispersal of Homo sapiens
Tuesday, 25th November / 10 / The Great Expansion – the colonisation of Australia, Siberia, the Americas and other places
Tuesday, 2nd December / 11 / Reflections and overview
Tuesday, 9th December / 12
See below for a guide to the literature, and recommended reading.
Assessment:
40% / 1500 word critique (excluding references) / Include supporting tables, diagrams and/or images / 27th October60% / 2000 word project
(excluding references) / Include extensive supporting tables, diagrams and/or images / December 12th
Human Origins 2014(ARC2127,ARC3127) – A guide to sources
Books in the University Library:
As a general rule, do not try to rely on books more than 20 years old – there are obviously some exceptions, but the pace of research in palaeoanthropology is very fast, and most material is out-dated very rapidly.
Also, if a book is not in the library, see what else is available under the same library classification number – look at the book’s neighbours
Palaeolithic sources
Bahn, Paul – images of the ice age (913.401 BAH); also rock art studies, 1991, 1993, 1996
Barham, Lawrence – The First Africans (960.1)
Barham, Larry – Human Roots: Africa and Asia in the Middle Pleistocene (913.601)
Bradley, Bruce– Across Atlantic Ice
Dennell – The Palaeolithic settlement of Asia (950 DEN)
Dennell and Martin Porr – Southern Asia, Australia and the search for human origins (569.98)
Gamble, Clive – Palaeolithic settlement of Europe (913.0312)
Gamble, Clive: Palaeolithic Societies of Europe (913.0312)
Scarre, Chris – The Human Past (913.031)
Klein, Richard – The Human Career: human biological and cultural origins
Pettitt, Paul and Mark White – The British palaeolithic: hominin societies at the edge of the Pleistocene world (936.1)
Pettitt, Paul – The Palaeolithic Origin of Human Burials (online version)
Pettitt – Britains oldest art
Human Evolution
Klein, Richard – Modern Human Origins (online version)
Lewin, Richard –Human Evolution – an Illustrated Introduction
Lewin, Richard - The Origins of Modern Humans
Stringer, Chris and Gamble, Clive: In Search of the Neanderthals: solving the puzzle of human origins
Tattersall, Ian – Becoming Human: Evolution and Human Uniqueness (599.938 TAT)
Encyclopedia of Human Evolution and Prehistory (573.203ENC [library use only])
The Fossil Trail: how we know what we think we know about human evolution (913.0257)
Tattersall and Schwartz - Extinct Humans (online version)
Pleistocene/Quaternary background:
Andersen, David – Global Environments through the Quaternary
Lowe, John – Reconstructing Quaternary Environments (551.79)
Elias, S – Elsevier Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science (4 vols) (551.79) – 00’s of short chapters on specific topics
Sirocko – the Climate of Past Interglacials (online)
Walker, M. – Quaternary Dating Methods
Williams – Quaternary Environments
Journals:
As with books, few articles have a useful shelf-life of more than 15-20 years – try if you can to use recent material. Those listed below are the top 10 journals for publications relevant to human evolution and the palaeolithic. Antiquity, Current Anthropology and J. World Prehistory (all available online) are also useful, sometimes.
Online: key journals on human evolution and the palaeolithic
Journal of Human Evolution
Quaternary International (also P550.5)
Quaternary Research (also P550.5)
Journal of Archaeological Science (also P 913 J17)
Journal of Quaternary Science
Quaternary Science Reviews (also P550.5)
General journals that often include relevant fossil or palaeolithic discoveries:
Nature ( also S-P 505 – especially strong on new fossil discoveries
PLoS One (Public Library of Science One)
PNAS (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA) <
Science (
Scientific American – sometimes good for overviews, not for detailed discoveries
Key search engines:
The one I use most is Google Scholar (scholar/google.co.uk if you can’t find it under Google). The biggest problem is controlling the sheer amount of material published on a topic: for example, Olduvai Gorge returns 10,000 hits. You can narrow this by specifying a range of years (e.g. 1990-2000) or by restricting hits to English-language publications (see under Google Settings, top right hand of Google Scholar page); or by narrowing your search (e.g. site/topic + author).
Recommended reading:
The list below is not exhaustive, but is representative of current landmarks and ideas. I don’t expect you to read everything! – but you should be able to read able to have an informed idea about what people think they know about human origins, and why they often disagree with each other. I’ve put down a few papers for each topic; those in bold are the ones I’d go for first; in other cases where none are in bold, it is because I’ve indicated what I consider to be the basic literature on that topic.
Primate archaeology
Haslam, M. et al., 2009. Primate Archaeology. Nature460, 339-344.
Haslam, M. Towards a prehistory of primates. Antiquity86, 299–315.
Earliest hominin archaeology
Heinzelin, J. de, Clark, J. D., White, T., Hart, W., Renne, P., WoldeGabriel, G., Beyene, Y., and Vrba, E. 1999 Environment and behaviour of 2.5-million-year-old Bouri hominids. Science 284:625–9.
Kimbel, W. H., Walter, R. C., Johanson, D. C., Reed, K. E., Aronson, J. L., Assefa, Z., Marean, C. W., Eck, G. C., Bobe, R., Hovers, E., Rak, Y., Vondra, C., Yemane, T., York, D., Chen, Y., Evensen, N. M., and Smith, P. E. 1996 Late Pliocene Homo and Oldowan tools from the Hadar Formation (Kadar Hadar Member), Ethiopia. Journal of Human Evolution 31:549–61.
Plummer, T., Ferraro, J., Ditchfield, P., Bishop, L. and Potts, R. 2001 Late Pliocene Oldowan excavations at Kanjera South, Kenya. Antiquity 75:809–10.
Sahnouni, M., Hadjouis, D., Made, J. van der, Derradji, A., Canals, A., Medig, M., Behahrech, H., Harichane, Z., and Rabhi, M. 2002 Further research at the Oldowan site of Ain Hanech, north-eastern Algeria. Journal of Human Evolution 43:925–37.
Semaw, S., Rogers, M.J., Quade, J., Renne, P.R., Butler, R.F., Dominguez-Rodrigo, M., Stout, D., Hart, W.S., Pickering, T. and Simpson, S.W. 2003 2.6-million-year-old stone tools and associated bones from OGS-6 and OGS-7, Gona, Afar, Ethiopia. Journal of Human Evolution 45: 169-177.
Anything by Nic Toth tends to be very good:
Toth, N. 1985 The Oldowan re-assessed: A close look at early stone artefacts. Journal of Archaeological Science 12:101–20.
Toth, N. 1987 The first technology. Scientific American 256(4):104–13.
Toth, N., Schick, K. D., Savage-Rumbaugh, E. S., Sevcik, R. A., and Rumbaugh, D. M. 1993 Pan the tool-maker: Investigations into the stone-tool making and tool-using capacities of a bonobo (Pan paniscus). Journal of Archaeological Science 20(1):81–92.
Koobi Fora
Bunn, H., Harris, J. W. K., Isaac, G. L., Kaufulu, Z., Kroll, E., Schick, K., Toth, N., and Behrensmeyer, A. K. 1980 FxJj50: An early Pleistocene site in northern Kenya. World Archaeology 12(2):109–36. (An old article, but still one of the best for showing what these very early sites are like)
Out of Africa 1: reading (all this should be available on-line and/or in the univ. library)
There is a vast amount on the earliest Eurasian data, much of it scattered in journals, many obscure. The following is a selection of the main material; see me if you need any others. Don’t feel that you need to read everything, but you may find some/much of this useful.
General:
Antón, S. and Swisher, C.C. III 2004 Early dispersals of Homo from Africa. Ann. Rev. Anthropol. 33: 271-296.
Dennell, R. W. 2003 Dispersal and colonisation, long and short chronologies: How continuous is the Early Pleistocene record for hominids outside East Africa? Journal of Human Evolution 45:421–40.
Dennell, R. W. 2004 Hominid dispersals and Asian biogeography during the Lower and Early Middle Pleistocene, ca. 2.0–0.5 Mya. Asian Perspectives 43(2):205–26. (on line under< then search for the journal
*Dennell, R. W. and Roebroeks, W. 2005 An Asian perspective on early human dispersal from Africa. Nature 438:1099–1104.
(See also: Kohn, M. 2006 Made in Savannahstan. New Scientist 191:34–9.)
*Tattersall, I. 1997. Out of Africa again ... and again? Scientific American 276(4):46–53.
Tattersall, I. 2000 Once we were not alone. Scientific American 282(1):38–44.
(For Asian material before 125 ka, there are detailed summaries in my book on Asia – chapter 5 for the earliest evidence)
Dmanisi: there is now a huge literature on this site (over 2800 entries on Google Scholar!). I would single these out as the key ones:
Gabunia, L., Vekua, A., Lordkipanidze, D., Swisher, C. C., Ferring, R., Justus, A., Nioradze, M., Tvalcherlidze, M., Antón, S. C., Bosinski, G., Jöris, O., Lumley, M.-A. de, Majsuradze, G., and Mouskhelishvili, A. 2000 Earliest Pleistocene hominid cranial remains from Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia: Taxonomy, geological setting, and age. Science 288:1019–25.
Gabunia, L., Vekua, A., and Lordkipanidze, D. 2000 The environmental contexts of early human occupation of Georgia (Transcaucasia). Journal of Human Evolution 38:785–802.
Lordkipanidze, D., Jashashvili, T., Vekua, A., Ponce de León, M. S., Zollikofer, C. P. E., Rightmire, G. P., Pontzer, H., Ferring, R., Oms, O., Tappen, M., Bukhsianidze, M., Agusti, J., Kahlke, R., Kiladze, G., Martínez-Navarro, B., Mouskhelishvili, A., Nioradze, M., and Rook, L. 2007 Postcranial evidence from early Homo from Dmanisi, Georgia. Nature 449:305–10.
(Read with: Lieberman, D. E. 2007 Homing in on early Homo. Nature 449:291–2.)
Lordkipanidze, D., Ponce de León, M.S., Margvelashvili, A., Rak, Y., Rightmire, G.P., Vekua, A., P. E. Zollikofer, C.P.E., 2013. A complete skull from Dmanisi, Georgia, and the evolutionary biology of early Homo. Science 342, 326-331.
Rightmire, G. P., Lordkipanidze, D., and Vekua, A. 2006 Anatomical descriptions, comparative studies and evolutionary significance of the hominin skulls from Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia. Journal of Human Evolution 50(2):115–41.
The Artefacts:
Ferring, R., Oms, O., Agusti, J., Berna, F., Nioradze, M., Shelia, T., Tappen, M., Vekua, A., Zhvania, D. and Lorkipanidze, D. 2011. Earliest human occupations at Dmanisi (Georgian Caucasus) dated to 1.85–1.78 Ma. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 108: 10432-10436.
Mgeladze, A., Lordkipanidze, D., Moncel, M.-M., Despriee, J., Chagelishvili, R., Nioradze, M., Nioradze, G., 2011. Hominin occupations at the Dmanisi site, Georgia, Southern Caucasus: Raw materials and technical behaviours of Europe’s first hominins. Journal of Human Evolution 6, 571-596.
Nihewan:
*Dennell, R.W., 2012. The Nihewan Basin of North China in the Early Pleistocene: Continuous and flourishing, or discontinuous, infrequent and ephemeral occupation? Quaternary International 295, 223-236.
* Keates, S.G., 2010. Evidence for the earliest Pleistocene hominid activity in the Nihewan Basin of northern China. Quaternary International 223-224, 408–417.
*Xing Gao, Qi Wei, Chen Shen, and Keates, S. 2005 New light on the earliest hominid occupation in East Asia. Current Anthropology 46 (S5):115–20.
Zhu, R., Zhinsheng An, Potts, R., and Hoffman, K. A. 2003 Magnetostratigraphy of early humans in China. Earth-Science Reviews 61:341–59.
Zhu, R. X., Hoffman, K. A., Potts, R., Deng, C. L., Pan, Y. X., Guo, B., Shi, C. D., Guo, Z. T., Hou, Y. M., and Huang, W. W. 2001. Earliest presence of humans in northeast Asia. Nature 413:413–17.
Zhu, R. X., Potts, R., Xie, F., Hoffman, K. A., Deng, C. L., Shi, C. D., Pan, Y. X., Wang, H. Q., Shi, G. H., and Wu, N. Q. 2004 New evidence on the earliest human presence at high northern latitudes in northeast Asia. Nature 431:559–562.
Sangiran, Java:
Larick, R., Ciochon, R. L., Zaim, Y., Sudijono, Suminto, Rizal, Y., Aziz, F., Reagan, M., and Heizler, M. 2001 Early Pleistocene 40Ar/39Ar ages for Bapang Formation hominins, Central Jawa, Indonesia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 98(9):4866–71.
Zaim, Y., Ciochon, R.L., Polanski, J.M., Grine, F.E., Bettis, E.A. III, Rizal, Y., Franciscus, R.G., Larick, R.R., Heizler, M., Aswan, K., Eaves, L., Marsh, H.E., 2011. New 1.5 million-year-old Homo erectus maxilla from Sangiran (Central Java, Indonesia). J. Hum. Evol. 61, 363-376.
Flores/Homo floresiensis, Indonesia:
Argue, D., Donlon, D., Groves, C., and Wright, R. 2006 Homo floresiensis: Microcephalic, pygmoid, Australopithecus, or Homo? Journal of Human Evolution 51:360–74.
*Brown, P., Sutkina, T., Morwood, M. J., Soejono, R. P., Jatniko, and Saptomo, E. W. 2004 A new small-bodied hominin from the Late Pleistocene of Flores, Indonesia. Nature 431:1055–68.
Morwood, M. J., Soejono, R. P., Roberts, R. G., Sutnika, T., Turney, C. S. M., Westaway, K. E., Rink, W. J., Zhao, J.-X., Bergh, G. D. van den, Due, R. A., Hobbs, D. R., Moore, M. W., Bird, M. I., and Fifield, L. K. 2004 Archaeology and age of a new hominin from Flores in eastern Indonesia. Nature 431:1087–91.
And the earliest evidence from Flores:
Brumm, A., Jensen, G.M., van den Bergh, G.D., Morwood, M.J., Kurniawan, I., Aziz, F., Storey, M., 2010. Hominins on Flores, Indonesia, by one million years ago. Nature 464, 748–752.
Morwood, M.J., O’Sullivan, P.B., Aziz, F. and Raza, A. 1998 Fission-track ages of stone tools and fossils on the east Indonesian island of Flores. Nature 392: 173-176.
Overview by: Diamond, J. 2004 The astonishing micropygmies Science 306: 2047.
Europe:
Dennell, R.W., Martinón-Torres, M. and Bermudez de Castro, J.M. 2011 Hominin variability, climatic instability and population demography in Middle Pleistocene Europe. Quaternary Science Reviews 30, 1511-1524. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.11.027
McDonald, K., Martinón-Torres, M. , Dennell, R. W., and Bermudez de Castro, J.M. 2012. Discontinuity in the record for hominin occupation in south-western Europe: Implications for occupation of the middle latitudes of Europe. Quaternary International 271, 84-97. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.10.009
Gamble, C. 1999 The Palaeolithic Societies of Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.(And/or his earlier Palaeolithic Settlement of Europe)
Roberts, M. B., Gamble, C. S., and Bridgland, D. R. 1995 The earliest occupation of Europe: The British Isles. In The Earliest Occupation of Europe, ed. W. Roebroeks and T. van Kolfschoten, 165–91. Leiden: Leiden University Press. (913.401)
*Roebroeks, W. 2001 Hominid behaviour and the earliest occupation of Europe: An exploration. Journal of Human Evolution 41:437–61.
Atapuerca: another key site with a vast literature (over 7000 on Google Scholar)
*Carbonell, E., Bermúdez de Castro, J. M., Arsuaga, J. L., Díez, J. C., Rosas, A., Cuenca-Bescós, G., Sala, R., Mosquera, M., and Rodríguez, X. P. 1995 Lower Pleistocene hominids and artifacts from Atapuerca-TD6 (Spain). Science 269:826–9.
Carbonell, E., Bermúdez de Castro, J. M., Arsuaga, J. L., Allué, E., Bastir, M., Benito, A., Cáceres, I., Canals, T., Diez, J. C., Made, J. van der, Mosquera, M., Ollé, A., Pérez-González, A., Rodríguez, J., Rodríguez, X. P., Rosas, A., Rosell, J., Sala, R., Vallerdú, J., and Vergés, J. M. 2005 An early Pleistocene hominin mandible from Atapuerca TD-6, Spain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 102:5674–8.
*Carbonell, E., Bermúdez de Castro, J.M., Parés, J.M., Pérez-González, A., Cuenca-Bescós, G., Ollé, A., Mosquera, M., Huguet, R., van der Made, J., Rosas, A., Sala, R.,Vallverdú, J., García, N., Granger, D.E., Martinón-Torres, M., Rodríguez, X.P., Stock, G.M., Vergès, J.M., Allué, E., Burjachs, F., Cáceres, I., Canals, A., Benito, A., Díez, C., Lozano, M., Mateos, A., Navazo, M., Rodríguez, J., Rosell, J., Arsuaga, J.L., 2008. The first hominin of Europe. Nature 452, 465-469.
*Martinón-Torres, M., Bermúdez de Castro, J. M., Gómez-Robles, A., Arsuaga, J. L., Carbonell, E., Lordkipanidze, D., Manzi, G., and Margvelashvili, A. 2007 Dental evidence on the hominin dispersals during the Pleistocene. Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 104(33): 13279–82.
Also, the volume 37 (3-4) of J. Human Evolution for 1999 was entirely on the evidence from the Gran Dolina cave at Atapuerca; and volume 33 (2-3) of 1997 was totally on the Sima de los Huesos material.
Pakefield/Happisburgh:
Ashton, N. et al., 2014. Hominin Footprints from Early Pleistocene Deposits at Happisburgh, UK. PLoS One, 9 | Issue 2 | e88329.
Parfitt, S. A., Barendregt, R. W., Breda, M., Candy, I., Collins, M. J., Coope, G. R., Durbridge, P., Field, M. H., Lee, J. R., Lister, A. M., Mutch, R., Penkman, K. E. H., Preece, R. C., Rose, J., Stringer, C. B., Symmons, R., Whittaker, J .E., Wymer, J. J., and Stuart, A. J. 2005 The earliest record of human activity in northern Europe. Nature 438:1008–12.
Parfitt, S. et al., 2010 Early Pleistocene human occupation at the edge of the boreal zone in northwest Europe. Nature 466, 229-233.
Schoningen:
Dennell, R. W. 1997 Life at the sharp end: The world’s oldest spears. Nature 385: 767–8.
Thieme, H. 1997 Lower Palaeolithic hunting spears from Germany. Nature 385:807–10.
Beech’s Pit: (early use of fire)
Preece, R.C., Gowlett, J.A.J., Parfitt, S.A., Bridgland, D.R. and Lewis, S.G. 2006 Humans in the Hoxnian: habitat, context and fire use at Beeches Pit, West Stow, Suffolk, UK. Journal of Quaternary Science 21 (5): 485-496.
Boxgrove:
Bates, M.R., Parfitt, S.A. and Roberts, M.B. 1997 The chronology, palaeogeography and archaeological significance of the marine quaternary record of the West Sussex Coastal Plain, southern England, U.K. Quaternary Science Reviews 16 (10): 1227-1252.
Neanderthals and the Mousterian (two enormous topics, best approached from a general book, e.g. one by Tattersall, or the Stringer and Gamble book)
Mellars, P.M. 1996. The Neanderthal Legacy (eBook)
Krause, J., Orlando, L., Serre, D., Viola, B., Prüfer, K., Richards, M.P., Hublin, J.-J., Hänni, C., Derevianko, A.P., Pääbo, S., 2007, Neanderthals in central Asia and Siberia. Nature 449, 902-904.
Shea, J.J., 2008. Transitions or turnovers? Climatically-forced extinctions of Homo sapiens and Neanderthals in the East Mediterranean Levant. Quaternary Science Reviews27, 2253-2270.
Boismier, W. et al. 2003. A Middle Palaeolithic site at Lynford Quarry, Mundford, Norfolk: interim statement. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 69, 315-24.
Kolen, J. 1999. Hominids without homes: on the nature of Middle Palaeolithic settlement in Europe. In Roebroeks, W. & Gamble, C. (eds.) The Middle Palaeolithic Occupation of Europe. Leiden: University Press.
Pettitt, P. B. (1997) High resolution Neanderthals? Interpreting Middle Palaeolithic intra site spatial patterning. World Archaeology 29(2). 208-224.
Richards, M., Pettitt, P. B., Trinkaus, E., Smith, F. H., Paunovic, M., and Karavanic, I. (2000). Neanderthal diet at Vindija and Neanderthal predation: the evidence from stable isotopes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) 97(13), 7663-6.
Out of Africa 2 (another large and complex subject)
Boivin, N., M. Petraglia, D. Fuller, R. Dennell & R. Allaby (in press).Tracking modern human dispersals across environments of Southern Asia. Quaternary International300 (2013) 32-47.
Dennell, R.W. and Petraglia, M.D. 2012 The dispersal of Homo sapiens across southern Asia: how early, how often, how complex? Quaternary Sciences Reviews47, 15-22.
Field, J.S., Lahr, M.M., 2006. Assessment of the southern dispersal: GIS based analyses of potential routes at Oxygen Isotope Stage 4. Journal of World Prehistory 19, 1-45.
Mellars, P., 2006. Going east: new genetic and archaeological perspectives on the modern human colonization of Eurasia. Science 313, 796-800.
Mellars, P. 2006. Why did modern human populations disperse from Africaca.60,000 years ago? A new model. PNAS 103 no. 25, 9381–938
Mellars, P., Gori, K.C., Carr, M., Soarses, P.A. and Richards, M.B. 2013. Genetic and archaeological perspectives on the initial modern human colonization of southern Asia. PNAS 110 (26), 10699-10704.
Pettitt, P., 2005. The rise of modern humans. In: Scarre, C. (Ed.), The Human Past. Thames and Hudson, London, pp.127-173.
Stringer, C.B., 2000. Coasting out of Africa. Nature 405, 24-25.
See also various chapters in Southern Asia, Australia and the Search for Human Origins, ed. RW Dennell and M. Porr, 2014, Cambridge Univ. Press. (569.98)
NE Africa
McDougall, I., Brown, F.H., Fleagle, J.G., 2005. Stratigraphic placement and age of modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia. Nature 433, 733-736.
White, T.D., Asfaw, B., DeGusta, D., Gilbert, H., Richards, G.D., Suwa, G., Howell, F.C., 2003. Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Nature 423, 742-747.
Quintana-Murci, L., Semino, O., Bandelt, H.-J., Passarino, G., McElreavey, K., Santachiara-Benerecetti, A.S., 1999. Genetic evidence of an early exit of Homo sapiens from Africa through eastern Africa. Nature Genetics 23, 437-441.
North Africa
Smith, T.A., Tafforeau, P., Reid, D.J., Grün, R., Eggins, S., Boukatiout, M., Hublin, J.-J., 2007. Earliest evidence of modern human life history in North African early Homo sapiens. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences104, 6128-6133.
Israel
Frumkin, A., Bar-Yosef, O., Schwarcz, H.P., 2011. Possible paleohydrologic and paleoclimatic effects on hominin migration and occupation of the Levantine Middle Paleolithic. Journal of Human Evolution 60, 437-451.
Shea, J.J., 2008. Transitions or turnovers? Climatically-forced extinctions of Homo sapiens and Neanderthals in the East Mediterranean Levant. Quaternary Science Reviews 27, 2253-2270.
Arabia
Armitage, S.J., Jasim, S.A., Marks, A.E., Parker, A.G., Usik, V.I., Uerpmann, H.-P., 2011. The southern route “Out of Africa”: evidence for an early expansion of modern humans into Arabia. Science 331, 453-456.