Lecture 1 (August 28th 2002)
"On marginality and social exclusion: conceptual clarifications"
Outline:
I Etymology
IIHistorical use and development
III Theoretical definition
IV The different forms of marginality
V Related and alternative concepts
IEtymology
"Margo" (lat.) edge, border, the margin on a written page.
"Glossae marginales" are explanations and notes written in the margin.
"On the page, but not in the text"
- Refer to something that exist on the border or on the outskirts
- Something that is of lesser importance (The Oxford English Dictionary)
In everyday speech, marginality refers to phenomena that are of less significance, that are situated outside a center, or that deviate from what is common.
IIHistorical roots and development
1. Marginality as cultural duality
The first social scientist to use the concept marginality and marginalization was the Jewish immigrant Robert E. Park in his article from 1928: "Human Migration and the Marginal Man". In his article, Park discusses the consequences of migration processes and the co-existence of different ethnical groups in the USA. Park claimed that the marginal man was a cultural hybrid (mixture) that experienced a continuous identity conflict being torn between the former and the present culture. However, Park was not at all pessimistic on behalf of the marginal man, which he considered to be the first cosmopolitan and capable of social innovation and contributing to further cultural sophistication (particularly through scientific invention, finding new solutions to old problems, etc).
Being the first scientist to describe a social phenomenon, and giving the concept marginality content, Park was a pioneer. But the concept was considered theoretically indistinct (or blurred) and lacked empirical support.
- Marginality as a social psychological dilemma
Following in Park's footsteps, Everett Stonequist, described marginality as a dualistic personality with a double consciousness characterized by having a double self identity, an ambivalent attitude to the "new life" and the "old life". According to Stonequist, marginal persons were more vulnerable, isolated and tended to seek people in the same situation as themselves ("Birds of a feather flock together". Similar to Park, however, Stonequist's conceptualization on marginality was considered somewhat vague and lacking empirical support.
- Marginality as socio-cultural isolation
Oscar Lewis in "Sanchez children" (1961) described a culture of poverty marked by political apathy, the splitting of families, passivity to economical obligations, and a tendency to seek immediate pleasures (having preference for short-term coals). Similar phenomena has been observed in Great Britain, where the working class to a great extent has been swapped for an underclass during the 1980s where numerous people lost their jobs, became dependent on social welfare, and lived on the streets on a day-to-day basis (see e.g., MacDonald's "Youth, the 'underclass' and social exclusion, 1997).
- Marginality as partial participation
Empirical studies from Latin-American cities in the 1970s revitalize the concept marginality. People living in slum areas in the outskirts of the urbane facilities describe a new form of marginality, namely Ecological (geographical) marginality. These marginalized people take part in the socio-economic system, but only under certain conditions. They experienced chronic economical and material uncertainty due to their incomplete tie to the labor marked. They were struggling for survival and a certain dignity, but the people living in the slum were not described as socially or culturally marginalized.
IIIA theoretical definition (Svedberg, 1997)
"Marginality is an unwanted state of vulnerability that has a certain duration, that is based on partial participation or limited access to basic resources. As a consequence, marginalized individuals have limited or reduced influence on their lives." (My translation)
- Unwanted state
- Vulnerability
- Certain duration
- Partial participation
- Limited influence
- Unwanted state
A state or a social condition that the individual or others perceive as negative or unfortunate because important needs are not met (i.e., a social problem). A flaw (defect) in the social well-fare system (Halvorsen, 1996).
What are unwanted states and conditions?
Who can define what is unwanted?
In societies that uphold work as a quality of life in itself (jfr. Arbeidslinjen), self-support and maintaining one's family are seen as opposed to being dependent. Having a job is equal to being self-supportive, and again the key to the "good" (happy) life (Jfr. Utjamningsmeldinga)
- Vulnerability
Risk factors:
Globalization and restructuring of the labor market
The post-modern, functionally differentiated, society is in principle open and inclusive, but Increased individuality increases the risk for being marginalized.
Lifelines moving from traditional to (post) modernistic with less focus on the family and stable social networks.
Coming from socially disadvantaged families characterized by little human, social or personal capital increase the probability of being marginalized, but this risk factor is not deterministic (see e.g., Caspi et al., 1998).
- Certain duration
Marginality largely refers to a state or a condition (which is more or less static). Marginalization refers to a process or a transition from one state to another. Hence, the process of marginalization has clear connotations to the concept liminality within the anthropologist's tradition. Moving successfully from one status or social position to another involves according to van Gennep (1909/ 1999) three separate phases: the separation phase, the liminal phase, and integration phase. In many cultures these status converts are ritual ("Rites de passage"), securing children to be transformed into adults through a number of predescribed daring and sometimes painful acts or in weddings. The most critical of these phases is definitely the liminal phase where the individual is forced to take a stand against the "old" status, social position or role. Some form of role vacuum is often experienced in this phase, not having any set reference frames for action or behaving. Sometimes individuals in the liminal phase also act against central values of the "new" society or negate the new social role. If so, they may become excluded, homeless or anomic. In cases where the integration into the new role or social position is problematic, Ezzy (1993) speaks of "divestment passage" (as opposed to "integrative passage").
An example of how marginality can be studied as a process is found in Paul Pedersen's (1997) longitudinal research on unemployment. Three categories of job marginalized are described: (1) Guests, who are unemployed in short periods between jobs or after being educated (2) Reoccurrents, who are having unstable bonds to the labor marked and who continuously go in and out of jobs, and (3) Chronic reoccurrents (outcasts) who are persons on long-term sick-leave, disabled or just living at home taking care of children (or not).
Studies of people on social service performed by Lars Svedberg (1995) in Sweden identifies different processes named "Constant uncertainty", "on the border of exclusion" and "on the way to integration"
4. Partial participation (see overhead)
This refers to not being a full member of a community, or being in the marginal zone. Criteria for deciding whether a person is partially participating in a system can be formal, normative or subjective.
Examples of formalized arenas are the labor market, the school, or organizations.
Examples of norms may be general expectations of involvement in informal social relations, or general expectations of fulfillment of basic material needs such as food, clothing and shelter. Crossed expectations are sometimes problematic (e.g., single parents and the work ethics)
Sometimes formal and normative criteria are insufficient for deciding on partial participation. In these cases, individual preferences need to be accounted for. Although informal social relations is the norm, the loner or the eremite, who voluntarily seeks isolation would not be considered marginalized. Nor would nonparticipation in activities that one is not expected to take part in (e.g., in jobs that require higher education).
5. Limited influence
This refers to narrowed opportunities for obtaining the "good" life, which would not only include fulfilling one's aspirations but also not having basic needs met (see e.g., Tranøy, 1998).
IV The different forms of marginality
1. Ecological (geographical) marginality
Marginalized urban areas: Ghettoization, concentration and segregation of unwanted land in big cities (Greenberg & Schneider, 1994)
Lack of social services, stigmatization and alienation of territory
Marginalized rural areas: Outskirts in Norway?
2. Job marginality
Has received particular focus because the labor market is considered the most important arena for distribution of resources, but also for identity formation and self-realization
A marginal attachment to labor market can also contribute to other forms of marginality (the productivity paradigm)
Operationalization (see overhead)
3. Material marginality
Money can be considered a mediator between one's whishes and needs that are satisfied.
Examples are poverty and living without residence (on the street).
Not being able, or limited opportunities to consummate. "If you can't pay you out"
Material marginality can be a consequence of unemployment and again increase the risk for other forms of marginality.
4. Social marginality
Social isolation, lack of social relations and social support.
Examples of operationalizations: "Not having a partner or close friends", "Not having anyone to contact in a difficult personal situation"
5. Cultural marginality
Being marginalized relative to the dominant culture (segregation)
Being marginalized due to lack of cultural participation
6. Political marginality
Limited access to important political decision making processes relevant to one's life
7. Existential marginality
A subjective feeling of social exclusion. Feelings of total or partial exclusion from all parts of the society (nearly 8% according to Halvorsen, 2000).
8. Ideological marginality
Totalitarian conceptions of reality. Myth or stereotyping of the reality leading to social exclusion and alienation (e.g., extreme right-wing ideologies). Persons having problems differentiating between mythical and empirically supported realities. Difficulties in modifying their conceptions.
V Related and alternative concepts
1. Social exclusion
A multidimensional concept referring to an accumulation of problems. Accumulated marginality.
Graham Room (1995): "The notion of social exclusion carries the implication where we are speaking of people who are suffering such a degree of multidimensional disadvantage, of such duration, and reinforced by such material and cultural degradation of the neighborhoods in which they live that their relational links with the wider society are ruptures to a degree irreversible. This is the core of the concept (..) inadequate social participation, lack of social protection, lack of social integration and lack of power."
2. Poverty
Limited to lack of economic resources
3. Underclass
Being permanently excluded from the mainstream of the society. May include those who have turned their back on the working ethic and traditional family values and virtues. Often poverty cultures. Labeling process against the mainstream society.
For discussion:
Are marginality and marginalization fruitful or usable concepts?
Can be an analytical tool for discriminating between different phenomena involving levels of analysis (individuals, groups, arenas, societies, cultures) and forms of exclusion (processes).
In the end, only empirical research can establish the usability of the concept.